Book of Wei · Annals of Emperor Wu (Cao Cao) — English Translation

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Taizu (Cao Cao) <Great Ancestor; a temple name honoring the dynastic founding ancestor, conferred on Cao Cao posthumously>, Emperor Wu (Cao Cao) <Martial Emperor; a posthumous title praising martial achievement>, was a native of Qiao in the kingdom of Pei. His surname was Cao, his personal name Cao, and his courtesy name Mengde. He was a descendant of Cao Can, Chancellor of State under the Han.

Commentary[The Biography of Cao Man says:] Taizu (Cao Cao) was also named Jili (meaning 'auspicious'), and his childhood name was Aman. Wang Shen's Book of Wei says: His ancestors descended from the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) <a legendary ancestral ruler, not the first historical emperor of China>. In the age of Gaoyang, An, a son of Luzhong, became the ancestor of the Cao surname. After King Wu of Zhou (Ji Fa) <Martial King; the founding king of the Zhou dynasty> conquered Yin, he preserved the descendants of earlier ruling houses and enfeoffed Cao Xia at Zhu. During the Spring and Autumn period, this state took part in the interstate alliances; in the Warring States period, it was destroyed by Chu. Its descendants scattered, and some settled in Pei. When Emperor Gaozu of Han (Liu Bang) <Exalted Ancestor; a designation of the founding Han emperor> rose to power, Cao Can was enfeoffed as Marquis of Pingyang for his services. His descendants inherited the fief; the line was interrupted and then restored. To this day, its legitimate heir holds a fief at Rongcheng.

During Emperor Huan (Liu Zhi) <Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han>'s reign, Cao Teng served as Regular Palace Attendant and Chamberlain of the Empress, and was enfeoffed as Marquis of Fei District.

CommentarySima Biao's Continued Book of Han says: Teng's father, Jie, courtesy name Yuanwei, was long known for kindness and generosity. A neighbor whose pig had gone missing came to claim a pig of Jie's that resembled it. Jie did not dispute the claim. Later the missing pig returned home of its own accord. Deeply ashamed, the owner brought back the pig he had claimed and apologized. Jie accepted it with a smile, and the people of his community admired him. His eldest son was Boxing, his second Zhongxing, and his third Shuxing. Teng, courtesy name Jixing, was appointed an attendant of the Yellow Gates while young. In the first year of Yongning, Empress Dowager Deng ordered the Director of the Yellow Gates to select a young, gentle, and conscientious attendant to accompany the crown prince in his studies; Teng was chosen. The prince was especially fond of him and distinguished him from the others in food and gifts. When Emperor Shun (Liu Bao) <Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han> ascended the throne, Teng became a Junior Yellow Gate Attendant, then Regular Palace Attendant and Chamberlain of the Empress. He served within the palace for more than thirty years under four emperors, without ever committing an offense. He liked to recommend worthy and capable men and never disparaged anyone. Those he recommended, including Yu Fang and Bian Shao of Chenliu, Yan Gu and Zhang Wen of Nanyang, Zhang Huan of Hongnong, and Tangxi Dian of Yingchuan, all rose to high ministerial office; he did not boast of his good deeds. The Administrator of Shu Commandery sent respects to Teng through an accounting officer. Chong Hao, Inspector of Yi Province, found the letter in a search at Hangu Pass and reported the administrator. He also accused Teng of engaging in outside dealings as a palace official, which was improper, and requested his dismissal and punishment. The emperor said, 'The letter came from outside; Teng sent no letter out. He has committed no offense.' He therefore shelved Chong Hao's memorial. Teng bore no resentment and often praised Chong Hao for fulfilling his duty to his sovereign. Chong Hao later became Minister over the Masses and told people, 'That I am a high minister today is owing to the kindness of Regular Attendant Cao.' Teng's conduct was always of this kind. When Emperor Huan (Liu Zhi) ascended the throne, Teng, as an old servant of the previous emperor distinguished for loyalty and filial conduct, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Fei District and granted the rank of Specially Advanced. In the third year of Taihe, he was posthumously honored as Emperor Gao (Cao Teng) <Exalted Emperor; a posthumous imperial title>.

His adopted son Song succeeded him and rose to Grand Commandant. No one could establish the full particulars of Song's birth and ancestry.

Song fathered Taizu (Cao Cao).

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In his youth, Taizu (Cao Cao) was quick-witted and alert, and skilled in stratagems, but he was also chivalrous and unruly, paying no attention to proper conduct or an occupation. People therefore did not yet regard him as remarkable.

CommentaryThe Biography of Cao Man says: As a youth, Taizu (Cao Cao) liked flying hawks and hunting with dogs, wandering about without restraint. His uncle repeatedly complained of him to Song. Troubled by this, Taizu (Cao Cao) later met his uncle on the road and pretended to be stricken, twisting his face and mouth. His uncle asked in surprise what had happened. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'I have suddenly suffered a stroke.' His uncle told Song. Alarmed, Song summoned Taizu (Cao Cao), whose face and mouth were normal. Song asked, 'Your uncle said you had a stroke. Have you recovered?' Taizu (Cao Cao) replied, 'I never had a stroke. My uncle simply dislikes me, and so he falsely accused me.' Song then became suspicious of the uncle. Thereafter, whatever the uncle reported, Song no longer believed him, and Taizu (Cao Cao) became still more unrestrained.

Only Qiao Xuan of Liang and He Yong of Nanyang thought him extraordinary. Xuan told Taizu (Cao Cao), 'The world is about to fall into disorder. Only a talent born for the age can save it. Might you be the one who brings it peace?'

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Grand Commandant Qiao Xuan, renowned for judging men, found Taizu (Cao Cao) extraordinary on seeing him and said, 'I have seen many famous men of the realm, but none like you! Take good care of yourself. I am old; I wish to entrust my wife and children to you.' His reputation consequently grew. The Continued Book of Han says: Xuan, courtesy name Gongzu, was strict and discerning, possessed talent and judgment, and excelled at assessing people. Zhang Fan's Annals of Han says: Xuan held posts both at court and outside it, and was known for firmness and decisiveness. He was modest and frugal, treated men of lower standing courteously, and did not use imperial honors to favor his relatives. During Guanghe he became Grand Commandant. Dismissed by formal decree after a long illness, he was appointed Senior Palace Counselor. When he died, his family was poor and owned no property, and there was nowhere to lay out his coffin. His contemporaries praised him as an eminent minister for this. Accounts of the Age says: Xuan told Taizu (Cao Cao), 'You are not yet well known; you should associate with Xu Zijiang.' Taizu (Cao Cao) therefore visited Zijiang, who received him, and he became known. Sun Sheng's Miscellaneous Accounts of Similarities and Differences says: Taizu (Cao Cao) once secretly entered the residence of Regular Palace Attendant Zhang Rang. When Rang discovered him, he wielded a hand halberd in the courtyard and escaped over the wall. His ability and martial skill surpassed others, and no one could harm him. He read widely, particularly favoring military writings. He compiled extracts from the various military authors into a work called Collected Essentials and annotated Sun Wu's thirteen chapters; both works circulated. He once asked Xu Zijiang, 'What sort of man am I?' Zijiang did not answer. Pressed, he said, 'An able minister in orderly times, a crafty hero in times of disorder.' Taizu (Cao Cao) laughed heartily.

At twenty, he was recommended as Filial and Incorrupt and became a Gentleman. He was appointed Commandant of the Northern Section of Luoyang, then promoted to Magistrate of Dunqiu.

He was summoned and appointed Consultant.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Song Qi, Marquis of Yinqiang and husband of Taizu (Cao Cao)'s younger female cousin, was executed, and Taizu (Cao Cao) was dismissed through implication in the case. Later, because he understood classical learning, he was again summoned as Consultant. Earlier, General-in-Chief Dou Wu and Grand Tutor Chen Fan had planned to execute the eunuchs, but were themselves killed. Taizu (Cao Cao) submitted a forceful memorial saying that Dou Wu, Chen Fan, and the others were upright men unjustly destroyed, while wicked men filled the court and good men were obstructed. Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) could not act on it. Subsequently, an edict instructed the Three Excellencies to report provincial and county officials whose administration was ineffective and against whom the people composed critical songs, so that they might be dismissed. The Three Excellencies were corrupt and sought favor according to the fashion of the times. Bribery was widespread. They avoided reporting the powerful for fear of resentment, while the weak who held to principle were often falsely accused and ruined. Taizu (Cao Cao) resented this. That year, disasters and anomalies prompted a broad inquiry into the government's failings. He again submitted a strong remonstrance, saying that the reports of the Three Excellencies were designed solely to spare the emperor's powerful relatives. The emperor, awakened by his memorial, showed it to the Three Excellencies and reproached them. Those summoned because of the songs were all appointed Consultants. Thereafter government grew daily more disordered, and powerful villains became increasingly rampant, destroying many. Knowing that matters could not be set right, Taizu (Cao Cao) ceased submitting advice.

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At the end of Guanghe, the Yellow Turbans rose. Appointed Cavalry Commandant, he attacked the rebels in Yingchuan. He was promoted to Chancellor of Jinan. The kingdom had more than ten counties, whose senior officials mostly flattered the emperor's powerful relatives and were notoriously corrupt. He reported eight of them for dismissal, prohibited unauthorized sacrifices, and drove the lawless into flight. Order prevailed throughout the commandery.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: The senior officials were greedy and accepted bribes, relying on powerful patrons; successive former chancellors had not reported them. On hearing of Taizu (Cao Cao)'s arrival, they were all reported and dismissed. Great and small were terrified, and the lawless fled into other commanderies. His administration and instruction took wide effect, and the whole commandery became peaceful and orderly. Earlier, because King Jing of Chengyang (Liu Zhang) <a Han royal title and posthumous designation>, had rendered service to the Han, a shrine had been erected in his kingdom. The commanderies of Qing Province copied this practice, especially Jinan, where there were more than six hundred shrines. Merchants sometimes borrowed the carriages, dress, and escorts of officials of two-thousand-bushel rank and put on music and performances. Extravagance increased daily, impoverishing the people. Successive senior officials had not dared stop it. On arriving, Taizu (Cao Cao) destroyed all the shrine buildings and forbade officials and commoners to sacrifice there. When he later held power, he eliminated such illicit dealings with spirits, and the unauthorized sacrifices of the age consequently ceased.

After some time, he was summoned back as Administrator of Dong Commandery. He declined the appointment and returned to his home district, pleading illness.

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Soon afterward, Wang Fen, Inspector of Ji Province, Xu You of Nanyang, Zhou Jing of Pei, and others formed connections with leading men and plotted to depose Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) and enthrone the Marquis of Hefei. They informed Taizu (Cao Cao), but he refused. Fen and the others subsequently failed.

CommentarySima Biao's Spring and Autumn Annals of the Nine Provinces says: Chen Fan's son Yi and the diviner Xiang Kai of Pingyuan were then visiting Fen. Kai said, 'The celestial signs are unfavorable to the eunuchs. The powerful families of the Yellow Gates and Regular Attendants will perish.' Yi rejoiced. Fen said, 'If so, I am willing to clear them away.' He accordingly conspired with You and the others. Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) intended to travel north to his former residence in Hejian. Fen and his associates planned to act on that occasion and memorialized that the Black Mountain rebels were raiding commanderies and counties, requesting permission to raise troops. Just then, a red vapor in the north stretched across the sky from east to west. The Grand Astrologer reported, 'There must be a secret conspiracy; a northern journey is inadvisable.' The emperor canceled the journey and ordered Fen to disband his troops, then shortly afterward summoned him. Fen, afraid, killed himself. The Book of Wei records Taizu (Cao Cao)'s refusal of Fen: 'Deposing and enthroning a ruler is the most ominous undertaking in the world. Among the ancients, Yi Yin and Huo Guang weighed the prospects of success and failure and acted accordingly. Yi Yin cherished the utmost loyalty, possessed the authority of a chief minister, and stood above the other offices; thus his decisions to advance, withdraw, depose, or appoint were followed and accomplished. Huo Guang had been entrusted with the state and held the position of a senior dynastic minister. Within the palace he relied on the empress dowager's governing authority, and outside it he enjoyed the agreement of the ministers. The ruler of Changyi had only recently ascended the throne, had no powerful favorites, and lacked upright ministers at court. The plan arose among the ruler's intimates, so carrying it out was as easy as turning a ball, and accomplishing it as easy as breaking rotten wood. You see only how easy it was then, not how difficult it is now. Consider yourselves: in your ability to gather followers and form alliances, how do you compare with the Seven Kingdoms? How does the standing of the Marquis of Hefei compare with that of Wu and Chu? To undertake such an extraordinary act and expect certain victory—is that not perilous?'

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Bian Zhang and Han Sui of Jincheng killed the inspector and commandery administrators and rebelled with more than a hundred thousand followers, throwing the realm into turmoil. Taizu (Cao Cao) was summoned as Colonel of the Army. Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) then died, the crown prince ascended the throne, and the empress dowager governed at court. General-in-Chief He Jin and Yuan Shao planned to execute the eunuchs, but the empress dowager would not consent. Jin therefore summoned Dong Zhuo, intending to intimidate her.

Before Zhuo arrived, Jin was killed. On arriving, Zhuo deposed the emperor as King of Hongnong (Liu Bian) <the deposed Han emperor’s princely title> and enthroned Emperor Xian (Liu Xie) <Emperor Xian, the last Han emperor>. The capital fell into great disorder. Zhuo nominated Taizu (Cao Cao) as Colonel of Valiant Cavalry and wished to consult him on affairs. Taizu (Cao Cao) changed his name and traveled secretly eastward to return home.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Believing that Zhuo was certain to be ruined, Taizu (Cao Cao) declined the appointment and fled home. With several mounted followers, he passed the home of his old acquaintance Lü Boshe at Chenggao. Boshe was absent, and his sons and guests joined in robbing Taizu (Cao Cao) of his horses and possessions. Taizu (Cao Cao) drew his blade and killed several of them. Accounts of the Age says: Taizu (Cao Cao) visited Boshe. Boshe had gone out, but all five sons were present and observed the courtesies due a guest. Because he had defied Zhuo's orders, Taizu (Cao Cao) suspected them of plotting against him. At night he personally killed eight people with his sword and departed. Sun Sheng's Miscellaneous Records says: Taizu (Cao Cao) heard the sound of their food vessels and thought they were plotting against him, so he killed them that night. Afterward he said sorrowfully, 'Better that I wrong others than that others wrong me!' Then he departed.

After passing out through the pass, he went through Zhongmu. A district chief suspected him and took him under arrest to the county office. Someone in the town secretly recognized him and interceded to obtain his release.

Zhuo then killed the empress dowager and the King of Hongnong (Liu Bian). Taizu (Cao Cao) reached Chenliu, distributed his family's wealth, and assembled troops for the righteous cause, intending to punish Zhuo. In winter, in the twelfth month, he first raised troops at Jiwu.

This was the sixth year of Zhongping.

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In the spring of the first year of Chuping, in the first month, General of the Rear Yuan Shu, Governor of Ji Province Han Fu,

CommentaryRecords of Heroes says: Fu, courtesy name Wenjie, was a native of Yingchuan. He served as Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk. Dong Zhuo appointed him Governor of Ji Province. At that time Ji Province had a large and prosperous population, ample troops, and abundant supplies. When Yuan Shao was in Bohai, Fu feared he would raise troops and sent several groups of officers to watch him, preventing any movement. Qiao Mao, Administrator of Dong Commandery, forged a circular from the Three Excellencies in the capital to the provinces and commanderies. It set out Zhuo's crimes, saying, 'We are under coercion and cannot save ourselves. We look to troops for the righteous cause to relieve the state's distress.' Receiving it, Fu summoned his officers and asked, 'Should we now help Yuan or Dong Zhuo?' Liu Zihui, the officer supervising administration, said, 'We are raising troops for the state. Why speak of Yuan and Dong?' Fu recognized his words were inadequate and looked ashamed. Zihui continued, 'War is a disastrous affair; one must not be the first to begin it. We should now observe the other provinces. When someone takes action, we can join them. Ji Province is no weaker than the others, and no other's achievements need surpass those of Ji Province.' Fu agreed and wrote to Shao describing Zhuo's wickedness and permitting him to raise troops.

Inspector of Yu Province Kong Zhou,

Inspector of Yan Province Liu Dai,

Administrator of Henei Wang Kuang,

CommentaryRecords of Heroes says: Kuang, courtesy name Gongjie, was from Taishan. He cared little for wealth, liked giving to others, and was known for chivalry. Recruited to the staff of General-in-Chief He Jin as an emissary bearing credentials, he raised five hundred powerful crossbowmen in Xu Province and took them west to the capital. When Jin's enterprise failed, Kuang returned home. He was later appointed Administrator of Henei. Xie Cheng's Book of Later Han says: In his youth, Kuang was friendly with Cai Yong. That year, defeated by Zhuo's army, he fled back to Taishan and gathered several thousand brave fighting men, intending to join Zhang Miao. Kuang had earlier killed Humu Ban, Bearer of the Gilded Mace. Ban's relatives, unable to contain their anger, joined forces with Taizu (Cao Cao) and killed Kuang.

Administrator of Bohai Yuan Shao, Administrator of Chenliu Zhang Miao, Administrator of Dong Commandery Qiao Mao,

Administrator of Shanyang Yuan Yi,

CommentaryYi, courtesy name Boye, was Shao's elder cousin. He served as Magistrate of Chang'an. Zhang Chao of Hejian once recommended him to Grand Commandant Zhu Jun, praising him: 'He possesses excellence surpassing his age and the capacity to manage its affairs. His loyalty, sincerity, and uprightness are gifts of Heaven. As for encompassing written works, mastering the various schools, composing a rhapsody on ascending a height, and knowing the name of everything he sees, none today approaches him.' This appears in Chao's collected writings. Records of Heroes says: Shao later appointed Yi Inspector of Yang Province, but he was defeated by Yuan Shu. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'Among those who remain diligent in study as grown men, there are only Yuan Boye and myself.' These words appear in Emperor Wen (Cao Pi) <Civil Emperor; a posthumous title>'s Authoritative Discourses.

and Chancellor of Jibei Bao Xin

all raised troops at the same time, each with several tens of thousands of men, and chose Shao as leader of the alliance. Taizu (Cao Cao) acted as General of Exerting Martial Might.

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In the second month, on learning that troops had risen, Zhuo moved the Son of Heaven and the capital to Chang'an. Zhuo himself remained stationed at Luoyang and burned the palaces. Shao was then at Henei; Miao, Dai, Mao, and Yi at Suanzao; Shu at Nanyang; Zhou at Yingchuan; and Fu at Ye. Zhuo's troops were strong, and Shao and the others dared not advance first. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'We raised troops for the righteous cause to punish violence and disorder. Our great forces are already assembled; why do you hesitate? Had Dong Zhuo, on hearing of the rising east of the mountains, relied on the weight of imperial authority and the defenses of the two Zhou capitals, facing east to dominate the realm, he could still have caused trouble despite his wickedness. Now he has burned the palaces and forcibly moved the Son of Heaven. All within the seas are shaken and do not know where to turn. This is the moment Heaven destroys him. A single battle can settle the realm; we must not let the opportunity slip.' He led his troops west, intending to occupy Chenggao. Miao sent General Wei Zi with a detachment to accompany him. At the Bian River in Xingyang they encountered Zhuo's general Xu Rong and were defeated. Many soldiers were killed or wounded. Taizu (Cao Cao) was struck by a stray arrow, and his horse was wounded. His younger cousin Hong gave him his own horse, allowing him to escape that night. Seeing that Taizu (Cao Cao)'s small force had fought hard all day, Rong concluded that Suanzao would not be easy to attack and withdrew his troops as well.

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When Taizu (Cao Cao) reached Suanzao, the assembled armies numbered more than a hundred thousand, but they held drinking parties daily and made no plans to advance. Taizu (Cao Cao) reproached them and proposed a strategy: 'Follow my plan. Let the Administrator of Bohai (Yuan Shao) lead the Henei forces to Mengjin. Let the generals at Suanzao hold Chenggao, occupy the Ao granaries, and block Huanyuan and Taigu, fully controlling the strategic passes. Let General Yuan (Yuan Shu) lead the Nanyang army to Dan and Xi, enter Wuguan, and alarm the Three Adjuncts. All should build high ramparts and deep defenses without giving battle. Increase feints and display our position to the realm. With loyal forces punishing rebels, we can settle matters at once. Now our troops have risen for a righteous cause, but we hesitate and do not advance, disappointing the hopes of the realm. I am ashamed for you!' Miao and the others could not adopt his plan.

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Taizu (Cao Cao)'s troops were few, so he went with Xiahou Dun and others to Yang Province to recruit. Inspector Chen Wen and Zhou Xin, Administrator of Danyang, gave him more than four thousand men. On his return, when he reached Longkang, many soldiers mutinied.

At Zhi and Jianping he gathered more than a thousand additional troops, then advanced to camp in Henei.

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Liu Dai and Qiao Mao became hostile. Dai killed Mao and put Wang Gong in charge as Administrator of Dong Commandery.

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Yuan Shao and Han Fu planned to enthrone Liu Yu, Governor of You Province. Taizu (Cao Cao) refused.

Shao also once obtained a jade seal and, while seated with Taizu (Cao Cao), raised it toward Taizu (Cao Cao)'s elbow. Taizu (Cao Cao) laughed at him and thereafter disliked him.

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In the spring of the second year, Shao and Fu proceeded to offer Liu Yu the imperial throne, but Yu would never dare accept it.

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In summer, in the fourth month, Zhuo returned to Chang'an.

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In autumn, in the seventh month, Yuan Shao coerced Han Fu and took Ji Province.

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The Black Mountain rebels Yu Du, Bai Rao, Sui Gu, and others,

with more than a hundred thousand followers, raided Wei and Dong commanderies. Wang Gong could not resist them. Taizu (Cao Cao) led troops into Dong Commandery, attacked Bai Rao at Puyang, and defeated him. Yuan Shao consequently nominated Taizu (Cao Cao) as Administrator of Dong Commandery, with his seat at Dongwuyang.

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In spring of the third year, Taizu (Cao Cao) camped at Dunqiu. Yu Du and the others attacked Dongwuyang. Taizu (Cao Cao) led his troops west into the mountains to attack their home camps.

Hearing this, Yu Du abandoned Wuyang and returned. Taizu (Cao Cao) intercepted Sui Gu and also attacked the Xiongnu leader Yufuluo at Neihuang, decisively defeating both.

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In summer, in the fourth month, Minister over the Masses Wang Yun and Lü Bu killed Zhuo together. Zhuo's generals Li Jue, Guo Si, and others killed Yun and attacked Bu. Defeated, Bu escaped east through Wuguan. Jue and the others monopolized government at court.

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A million Yellow Turban followers from Qing Province entered Yan Province, killed Zheng Sui, Chancellor of Rencheng, and moved into Dongping. Liu Dai intended to attack them. Bao Xin remonstrated: 'The rebels now number a million; the people are terrified, and the soldiers have no will to fight. We cannot face them. Their crowds follow one another, but the army has no supply train and lives only by plunder. Better now to conserve our troops' strength and maintain firm defenses. Unable to obtain battle or succeed in an assault, they must disperse. We can then select our best troops, occupy the strategic points, and defeat them.' Dai did not listen, fought them, and was indeed killed.

Xin and provincial officers including Wan Qian went to Dong Commandery to welcome Taizu (Cao Cao) as Governor of Yan Province. He advanced against the Yellow Turbans east of Shouzhang. Xin fought hard and died, and Taizu (Cao Cao) barely secured a victory.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Leading more than a thousand infantry and cavalry to inspect the battlefield, Taizu (Cao Cao) unexpectedly reached the rebel camp. The battle went badly; several hundred died, and he withdrew. The rebels soon advanced. Long experienced in rebellion and repeatedly victorious, the Yellow Turbans had fierce, seasoned troops. Taizu (Cao Cao)'s veteran troops were few and his new recruits untrained, so the whole army was afraid. Wearing armor and helmet, he personally toured the troops, making rewards and punishments clear and encouraging them. Their spirit revived. He attacked whenever opportunities arose, and the rebels gradually gave ground. They sent Taizu (Cao Cao) a letter: 'Formerly, in Jinan, you destroyed the divine altars. Your way was then the same as that of Zhonghuang Taiyi, and you seemed to understand the Way. Now you have become deluded. The destiny of Han is exhausted; the Yellow House must arise. Heaven's great cycle cannot be preserved by your talents and strength.' Taizu (Cao Cao) read their proclamation, denounced their crimes, and repeatedly explained how they could surrender. He laid unexpected ambushes and fought them day and night, taking prisoners in every engagement. The rebels then fled.

Despite offering a reward, they could not recover Xin's body. The soldiers carved a wooden likeness of him, offered sacrifices, and wept. Taizu (Cao Cao) pursued the Yellow Turbans to Jibei, where they begged to surrender. In winter, he accepted the surrender of more than three hundred thousand soldiers and over a million men and women. He selected their best fighters, calling them the Qing Province Troops.

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Yuan Shu was at odds with Shao and sought help from Gongsun Zan. Zan stationed Liu Bei at Gaotang, Shan Jing at Pingyuan, and Tao Qian at Fagan to pressure Shao. Taizu (Cao Cao) joined Shao in attacking and defeated them all.

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In spring of the fourth year, he camped at Juancheng. Liu Biao, Governor of Jing Province, cut Yuan Shu's supply route. Shu led his army into Chenliu and stationed it at Fengqiu, supported by remaining Black Mountain rebels, Yufuluo, and others. Shu sent General Liu Xiang to Kuangting. Taizu (Cao Cao) attacked Xiang; Shu came to his relief, gave battle, and was decisively defeated. Shu withdrew to defend Fengqiu. Taizu (Cao Cao) besieged it, but before the encirclement was complete Shu fled to Xiangyi. Pursuing him to Taishou, Taizu (Cao Cao) diverted canal water to flood the city. Shu fled to Ningling, then, pursued again, to Jiujiang. In summer, Taizu (Cao Cao) returned with his army to Dingtao.

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Que Xuan of Xiapi gathered several thousand followers and proclaimed himself Son of Heaven. Tao Qian, Governor of Xu Province, joined him in military action, taking Hua and Fei in Taishan and raiding Rencheng. In autumn, Taizu (Cao Cao) campaigned against Tao Qian and took more than ten cities. Qian defended a city and dared not come out.

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That year, Sun Ce crossed the Yangzi on Yuan Shu's orders. Within a few years he came to possess the lands east of the river.

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In spring of the first year of Xingping, Taizu (Cao Cao) returned from Xu Province. Earlier, his father Song had retired from office and returned to Qiao. During Dong Zhuo's turmoil he sought refuge in Langye, but was killed through Tao Qian. Thus Taizu (Cao Cao)'s eastern campaign was undertaken with revenge in mind.

CommentaryAccounts of the Age says: Song was in Hua County of Taishan. Taizu (Cao Cao) ordered Ying Shao, Administrator of Taishan, to escort his family to Yan Province. Before Shao's troops arrived, Tao Qian secretly sent several thousand cavalry to seize them by surprise. Song's household thought they had come from Shao and made no preparations. Qian's troops arrived and killed Taizu (Cao Cao)'s younger brother De inside the gate. Frightened, Song broke through the rear wall and first tried to get his concubine out, but she was fat and could not escape in time. Song hid in the privy; both he and the concubine were killed, and the entire household perished. Shao, afraid, abandoned his office and went to Yuan Shao. By the time Taizu (Cao Cao) pacified Ji Province, Ying Shao was already dead. Wei Yao's Book of Wu says: Taizu (Cao Cao) sent for Song, whose baggage filled more than a hundred carts. Tao Qian sent Commandant Zhang Kai with two hundred cavalry as escort. Between Hua and Fei in Taishan, Kai killed Song, seized his wealth, and fled to Huainan. Taizu (Cao Cao) blamed Tao Qian and therefore attacked him.

In summer, leaving Xun Yu and Cheng Yu to guard Juancheng, he again attacked Tao Qian. He captured five cities and raided as far as Donghai. Returning through Tan, he encountered Qian's general Cao Bao and Liu Bei, stationed east of Tan to intercept him. Taizu (Cao Cao) defeated them, then captured Xiangben. Wherever he passed, there was much devastation and slaughter.

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Zhang Miao and Chen Gong then rebelled and welcomed Lü Bu, and the commanderies and counties all responded. Xun Yu and Cheng Yu held Juancheng, while Fan and Dong'e counties maintained firm defenses. Taizu (Cao Cao) therefore brought his army back. On arriving, Bu attacked Juancheng but could not take it, so he stationed himself westward at Puyang. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'Having suddenly gained a province, Bu could not occupy Dongping, cut the routes through Kangfu and Taishan, and intercept me in difficult terrain. Instead he camps at Puyang. I know he can accomplish nothing.' Taizu (Cao Cao) advanced against him. Bu came out to fight, first sending cavalry against the Qing Province Troops. They fled, throwing Taizu (Cao Cao)'s formation into disorder. Taizu (Cao Cao) charged out through fire, fell from his horse, and burned his left palm. Army Major Lou Yi helped him remount, and he withdrew.

Before he had reached camp and halted, the generals, who had not seen him, were all frightened. Taizu (Cao Cao) exerted himself to reassure the army and ordered siege equipment prepared urgently. He attacked again and faced Bu for more than a hundred days. Locusts appeared and the people suffered severe famine. Bu's supplies also ran out, and both sides withdrew.

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In autumn, in the ninth month, Taizu (Cao Cao) returned to Juancheng. Bu reached Chengshi, was defeated by a local man, Li Jin, and camped eastward in Shanyang. Shao then sent someone to persuade Taizu (Cao Cao) to form an alliance. Having recently lost Yan Province and exhausted his army's food, Taizu (Cao Cao) was about to agree. Cheng Yu dissuaded him, and he followed Yu's advice. In winter, in the tenth month, Taizu (Cao Cao) reached Dong'e.

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That year, one hu of grain cost more than five hundred thousand cash, and people ate one another. Newly recruited officials and soldiers were therefore dismissed. Tao Qian died, and Liu Bei succeeded him.

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In spring of the second year, Taizu (Cao Cao) attacked Dingtao by surprise. Wu Zi, Administrator of Jiyin, held the southern city, which he could not capture. Lü Bu then arrived, and Taizu (Cao Cao) defeated him again. In summer, Bu's generals Xue Lan and Li Feng were stationed at Juye. Taizu (Cao Cao) attacked them. Bu came to relieve Lan, but Lan was defeated and Bu fled; Taizu (Cao Cao) then beheaded Lan and the others. Bu returned from Dongmin with Chen Gong and more than ten thousand men to fight. Taizu (Cao Cao)'s troops were few, but he laid an ambush and deployed an unexpected force, decisively defeating them.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Most of his troops had gone out to gather wheat; fewer than a thousand remained, and the camp defenses were weak. Taizu (Cao Cao) ordered women to guard the parapets and brought out all his troops to resist. West of the camp stood a large embankment, with dense woods to its south. Suspecting an ambush, Bu said to his men, 'Cao Cao is full of tricks. Do not fall into an ambush.' He withdrew to camp more than ten li to the south. Returning next day, he found Taizu (Cao Cao) had hidden troops behind the embankment and brought half his force out in front of it. As Bu advanced, Taizu (Cao Cao) sent light troops to provoke battle. Once they engaged, the hidden troops all mounted the embankment, and infantry and cavalry advanced together, defeating Bu decisively. They captured his dragon-decorated carriage, pursued him to his camp, and returned.

Bu fled at night. Taizu (Cao Cao) attacked again and captured Dingtao, then detached troops to pacify the counties. Bu fled east to Liu Bei. Zhang Miao followed him, leaving his younger brother Chao to guard their families at Yongqiu. In autumn, in the eighth month, Taizu (Cao Cao) besieged Yongqiu. In winter, in the tenth month, the Son of Heaven appointed Taizu (Cao Cao) Governor of Yan Province. In the twelfth month, Yongqiu fell and Chao killed himself. Miao's three kinship groups were exterminated. Miao went to Yuan Shu for help but was killed by his own men. With Yan Province pacified, Taizu (Cao Cao) raided eastward into Chen.

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That year, Chang'an fell into disorder. The Son of Heaven moved east, was defeated at Caoyang, crossed the Yellow River, and took refuge at Anyi.

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In spring of the first year of Jian'an, in the first month, Taizu (Cao Cao)'s army approached Wuping. Yuan Si, appointed Chancellor of Chen by Yuan Shu, surrendered.

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Taizu (Cao Cao) intended to receive the Son of Heaven. Some generals hesitated, but Xun Yu and Cheng Yu encouraged him. He sent Cao Hong west with troops to escort the emperor. General of the Guards Dong Cheng and Yuan Shu's general Chang Nu held the strategic terrain against him, and Hong could not advance.

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The Yellow Turban leaders He Yi, Liu Pi, Huang Shao, He Man, and others of Runan and Yingchuan each had several tens of thousands of followers. They had first supported Yuan Shu, then attached themselves to Sun Jian. In the second month, Taizu (Cao Cao) advanced and defeated them, beheading Pi, Shao, and the others. Yi and all his followers surrendered. The Son of Heaven appointed Taizu (Cao Cao) General Who Establishes Virtue. In summer, in the sixth month, he was promoted to General Who Guards the East and enfeoffed as Marquis of Fei District. In autumn, in the seventh month, Yang Feng and Han Xian brought the Son of Heaven back to Luoyang.

Feng camped separately at Liang. Taizu (Cao Cao) then reached Luoyang and guarded the capital, while Xian fled. The Son of Heaven granted Taizu (Cao Cao) the credentials and battle-axe of command and oversight of the affairs of the Masters of Writing.

Luoyang was devastated. Dong Zhao and others urged Taizu (Cao Cao) to establish the capital at Xu. In the ninth month, the imperial carriage went east through Huanyuan. Taizu (Cao Cao) was appointed General-in-Chief and enfeoffed as Marquis of Wuping. Since the Son of Heaven's westward removal, the court had grown more disordered daily. Only now were the institutions of the ancestral temples and the altars of soil and grain reestablished.

CommentaryZhang Fan's Annals of Han says: After his defeat at Caoyang, the Son of Heaven intended to travel east downstream on the Yellow River. Palace Attendant and Grand Astrologer Wang Li said, 'Since last spring, Venus has encroached upon Saturn in the Ox and Dipper lodges and passed the Celestial Ford. Mars has also moved retrograde and remained at the Northern River. These signs must not be defied.' The Son of Heaven therefore did not cross the river northward, intending instead to go east through Zhiguan. Li also told Liu Ai, Minister of the Imperial Clan, 'Earlier Venus remained at the Celestial Pass and met Mars. The conjunction of metal and fire signifies a change of mandate. Han's allotted rule is ending; one of Jin or Wei must arise.' Li later told the emperor repeatedly, 'Heaven's mandate passes from one to another; none of the Five Phases flourishes forever. Earth succeeds fire, and Wei will succeed Han. The man who can bring peace to the realm bears the surname Cao. You must entrust affairs to the Cao house.' Hearing this, the Duke (Cao Cao) sent word to Li: 'I know your loyalty to the court, but Heaven's ways are profound and remote. Please do not speak so much of them.'

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As the Son of Heaven traveled east, Feng set out from Liang to intercept him but failed to catch him. In winter, in the tenth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against Feng, who fled south to Yuan Shu. He then captured Feng's camp at Liang. Yuan Shao was appointed Grand Commandant, but, ashamed to rank below the Duke (Cao Cao), refused the office. The Duke (Cao Cao) firmly declined his own post and yielded the position of General-in-Chief to Shao. The Son of Heaven appointed the Duke (Cao Cao) Minister of Works and acting General of Chariots and Cavalry. That year, adopting the proposals of Zao Zhi, Han Hao, and others, he first established agricultural colonies.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Since the onset of famine and disorder, grain was generally scarce. Armies arose everywhere without plans to sustain themselves through a year: hungry, they plundered; full, they abandoned the surplus. Countless forces dissolved and scattered, destroying themselves without an enemy. In Hebei, Yuan Shao's soldiers depended on mulberries for food. Between the Yangzi and Huai, Yuan Shu's men subsisted on freshwater snails. People ate one another, and villages lay desolate. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'The means of securing a state lie in strong troops and ample food. Qin united the realm by emphasizing agriculture, and Emperor Xiaowu (Liu Che) <Filial and Martial Emperor; a posthumous title> secured the Western Regions through agricultural colonies. These are excellent models from earlier ages.' That year he recruited people to farm in colonies around Xu and obtained a million hu of grain. The provinces and commanderies then established agricultural officials on the same model, accumulating grain everywhere. Campaigning in all directions without the burden of transporting provisions, he eventually destroyed the rebel forces and pacified the realm.

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Lü Bu attacked Liu Bei by surprise and took Xiapi. Bei fled to the Duke (Cao Cao). Cheng Yu advised, 'Liu Bei has heroic talent and enjoys great popular support. He will never remain under another man. Better deal with him early.' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'Now is the time to gather heroes. We cannot kill one man and lose the hearts of the realm.'

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Zhang Ji fled from Guanzhong to Nanyang. When Ji died, his nephew Xiu took command of his followers.

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In spring of the second year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) reached Wan. Zhang Xiu surrendered, but then regretted it and rebelled. The Duke (Cao Cao) fought him and was defeated, being struck by a stray arrow. His eldest son Ang and his nephew Anmin were killed.

The Duke (Cao Cao) withdrew to Wuyin. Xiu brought cavalry to raid him, but the Duke (Cao Cao) defeated them. Xiu fled to Rang and joined Liu Biao. The Duke (Cao Cao) told his generals, 'After accepting Zhang Xiu's surrender, I erred by not immediately taking hostages, and so matters came to this. I know why I was defeated. Watch: from now on I shall not be defeated again.' He then returned to Xu.

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Yuan Shu intended to proclaim himself emperor in Huainan and sent an envoy to inform Lü Bu. Bu arrested the envoy and forwarded Shu's letter to the throne. Furious, Shu attacked Bu but was defeated. In autumn, in the ninth month, Shu invaded Chen, and the Duke (Cao Cao) marched east against him. Learning that the Duke (Cao Cao) was coming in person, Shu abandoned his army and fled, leaving his generals Qiao Rui, Li Feng, Liang Gang, and Yue Jiu. The Duke (Cao Cao) arrived, defeated them, and had them all beheaded. Shu fled across the Huai, and the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Xu.

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When the Duke (Cao Cao) returned from Wuyin, the counties of Nanyang and Zhangling again rebelled for Zhang Xiu. He sent Cao Hong against them, but Hong was unsuccessful and withdrew to Ye, where Xiu and Liu Biao repeatedly attacked him. In winter, in the eleventh month, the Duke (Cao Cao) personally campaigned south and reached Wan.

Biao's general Deng Ji held Huyang. The Duke (Cao Cao) captured it and took Ji alive; Huyang surrendered. He then attacked and took Wuyin.

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In spring of the third year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Xu and first established the office of Chief Military Adviser. In the third month he besieged Zhang Xiu at Rang. In summer, in the fifth month, Liu Biao sent troops to relieve Xiu and cut off the army's rear.

As the Duke (Cao Cao) prepared to withdraw, Xiu's troops came up and prevented his army from advancing. He moved slowly forward, keeping the camps connected. He wrote to Xun Yu, 'The enemy is pursuing me. Though we advance only a few li a day, I have assessed them: once we reach Anzhong, Xiu is certain to be defeated.' At Anzhong, Xiu and Biao joined forces to hold the difficult terrain, attacking the Duke (Cao Cao)'s army from front and rear. During the night he cut a passage through the difficult ground, moved all his baggage through it, and deployed an unexpected force. At dawn, thinking he was fleeing, the enemy pursued with their entire army. He released the hidden troops, and infantry and cavalry attacked from both sides, defeating them decisively. In autumn, in the seventh month, he returned to Xu. Xun Yu asked, 'Why did you previously judge that the enemy would surely be defeated?' The Duke (Cao Cao) replied, 'They blocked the return of my army and fought us on ground where we faced death. That was how I knew we would win.'

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Lü Bu again acted for Yuan Shu, sending Gao Shun against Liu Bei. The Duke (Cao Cao) sent Xiahou Dun to relieve Bei, but unsuccessfully; Shun defeated Bei. In the ninth month the Duke (Cao Cao) marched east against Bu. In winter, in the tenth month, he sacked Pengcheng and captured its chancellor, Hou Xie. Advancing to Xiapi, he met Bu, who personally led cavalry against him, defeated him decisively, and captured his brave general Cheng Lian. Pursued to the city walls, Bu was frightened and wished to surrender. Chen Gong and the others obstructed this plan, sought help from Shu, and urged Bu to fight. Defeated again, he returned to hold the city firmly, and the Duke (Cao Cao)'s assaults failed to take it. After continual fighting, the Duke (Cao Cao)'s soldiers were exhausted, and he intended to withdraw. Adopting Xun You and Guo Jia's plan, however, he diverted the Si and Yi rivers to flood the city. More than a month later, Bu's generals Song Xian, Wei Xu, and others seized Chen Gong and surrendered the city. Bu and Gong were taken alive and both killed. Zang Ba, Sun Guan, Wu Dun, Yin Li, and Chang Xi of Taishan each had gathered followers. When Bu defeated Liu Bei, they had all followed Bu. After Bu's defeat, the Duke (Cao Cao) obtained their submission, received them generously, and entrusted them with the coastal parts of Qing and Xu provinces. He divided Langye, Donghai, and Beihai to establish Chengyang, Licheng, and Changlü commanderies.

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Earlier, while governing Yan Province, the Duke (Cao Cao) appointed Bi Chen of Dongping as Attendant Officer. When Zhang Miao rebelled, he seized Chen's mother, younger brother, wife, and children. The Duke (Cao Cao) released him from service, saying, 'Your aged mother is there; you may go.' Chen bowed his head to the ground and declared undivided loyalty. The Duke (Cao Cao) admired him and wept for him. Once outside, however, Chen fled back to his family. After Bu was defeated, Chen was taken alive. Everyone feared for him, but the Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'A man filial to his parents—is he not also loyal to his ruler? Such a man is what I seek.' He appointed him Chancellor of Lu.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: Yuan Shao had long been at odds with former Grand Commandant Yang Biao, Chamberlain of the Empress Liang Shao, and Minister Steward Kong Rong. He wanted the Duke (Cao Cao) to execute them on other pretexts. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'The realm is now collapsing, and powerful men are rising together. Ministers and rulers alike harbor discontent, each wishing to act for himself. This is a time when those above and below suspect one another. Even if I treat them without suspicion, I fear they will not trust me. If I remove anyone, who will not feel endangered? Besides, having risen from common status amid the dust and dirt, I have suffered contempt and slander from ordinary men. Could I avenge every grievance? Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang) pardoned his enemy Yong Chi and thereby reassured everyone. How could I forget that?' Shao believed the Duke (Cao Cao) was outwardly invoking public justice while inwardly breaking with him, and felt deep resentment. I, your servant Songzhi, observe that Yang Biao was also persecuted by Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) and nearly died, while Kong Rong ultimately did not escape execution. Can this be called first putting one's words into practice and only then speaking accordingly? It is indeed true that knowing is not the difficulty; acting on what one knows is.

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In spring of the fourth year, in the second month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned as far as Changyi. Zhang Yang's general Yang Chou killed Yang; Sui Gu then killed Chou, attached his followers to Yuan Shao, and camped at Shequan. In summer, in the fourth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) advanced to the Yellow River and sent Shi Huan and Cao Ren across to attack him. Gu left Yang's former Chief Clerk Xue Hong and Administrator of Henei Miao Shang to guard the position and personally led troops north to meet Shao and request help. He encountered Huan and Ren at Quancheng. In battle they defeated him decisively and beheaded him. The Duke (Cao Cao) crossed the river and besieged Shequan. Hong and Shang surrendered with their men and were enfeoffed as ranked marquises. The Duke (Cao Cao) returned to the Ao granaries and appointed Wei Chong Administrator of Henei, entrusting him with affairs north of the river.

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Earlier, the Duke (Cao Cao) had recommended Chong as Filial and Incorrupt. When Yan Province rebelled, he said, 'Wei Chong alone will not abandon me.' Learning that Chong too had fled, he angrily said, 'Unless Chong escapes south to Yue or north to the Hu, I shall not spare him!' After capturing Shequan, he took Chong alive and said, 'It is his talent that matters!' He released his bonds and employed him.

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By then Yuan Shao had destroyed Gongsun Zan, possessed four provinces, and commanded more than a hundred thousand men. He intended to attack Xu. The generals thought they could not withstand him. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'I know Shao: his ambitions are great but his judgment slight; his expression is fierce but his courage weak. He is jealous and overbearing but commands little authority. His troops are numerous, but their assignments unclear; his generals arrogant, and his orders inconsistent. Though his lands are broad and his grain plentiful, they will merely serve to supply me.' In autumn, in the eighth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) advanced to Liyang and sent Zang Ba and others into Qing Province, where they defeated Qi, Beihai, and Dong'an. He left Yu Jin stationed on the Yellow River. In the ninth month he returned to Xu and detached troops to guard Guandu. In winter, in the eleventh month, Zhang Xiu surrendered with his followers and was enfeoffed as a ranked marquis. In the twelfth month the Duke (Cao Cao) camped at Guandu.

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Since his defeat at Chen, Yuan Shu had grown increasingly distressed. Yuan Tan sent from Qing Province to receive him. Shu intended to pass north through Xiapi, and the Duke (Cao Cao) sent Liu Bei and Zhu Ling to intercept him. Shu happened to fall ill and die. Hearing that the Duke (Cao Cao) had sent Bei away, Cheng Yu and Guo Jia said, 'Liu Bei must not be let loose.' The Duke (Cao Cao) regretted it, but his pursuit failed to catch Bei. Before going east, Bei had secretly conspired with Dong Cheng and others to rebel. At Xiapi he killed Che Zhou, Inspector of Xu Province, raised troops, and stationed them at Pei. Liu Dai and Wang Zhong were sent against him but could not defeat him.

CommentaryThe Spring and Autumn Annals of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie) says: Bei told Dai and the others, 'Even if a hundred of you came, you could do nothing to me. If Lord Cao (Cao Cao) comes himself, the outcome is uncertain.' Anecdotes of Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) says: Dai, courtesy name Gongshan, was from Pei. As Chief Clerk to the Minister of Works, he rendered service on campaigns and was enfeoffed as a ranked marquis. A Brief History of Wei says: Wang Zhong was from Fufeng and was a district chief when young. During the disorders of the Three Adjuncts, hunger drove him to eat human flesh. He traveled south toward Wuguan with companions and encountered Lou Zibo, sent by Jing Province to welcome refugees from the north. Unwilling to go with him, Zhong led his companions against him, seized their weapons, gathered more than a thousand followers, and joined the Duke (Cao Cao). Appointed General of the Gentlemen of the Household, he accompanied campaigns. The General of the Five Offices (Cao Pi) knew that Zhong had eaten human flesh. While accompanying the Duke (Cao Cao) on an outing, he ordered entertainers to take skulls from among the tombs and tie them to Zhong's saddle for amusement.

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Liu Xun, Administrator of Lujiang, surrendered with his followers and was enfeoffed as a ranked marquis.

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In spring of the fifth year, in the first month, Dong Cheng's conspiracy was exposed, and he and the others were all executed. The Duke (Cao Cao) intended to march east against Bei himself. The generals said, 'Yuan Shao is your rival for the realm. Shao is now about to come. If you leave him and go east, what if he attacks your rear?' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'Liu Bei is an outstanding man. If we do not attack him now, he will cause trouble later.

Though Yuan Shao has great ambitions, he is slow to see what events require, and certainly will not move.' Guo Jia also encouraged him. He marched east, defeated Bei, and captured his general Xiahou Bo alive. Bei fled to Shao, and the Duke (Cao Cao) captured his wife and children. Bei's general Guan Yu held Xiapi; the Duke (Cao Cao) attacked again, and Yu surrendered. Chang Xi rebelled in Bei's support and was also defeated. The Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Guandu. In the end, Shao had not advanced.

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In the second month, Shao sent Guo Tu, Chunyu Qiong, and Yan Liang to attack Liu Yan, Administrator of Dong Commandery, at Baima. Shao himself advanced to Liyang, intending to cross the Yellow River. In summer, in the fourth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) went north to relieve Yan. Xun You advised, 'Our troops are too few to face the enemy; we must divide his strength. Go to Yanjin and appear ready to cross behind him. Shao will respond westward. Then take light troops to strike Baima by surprise, and Yan Liang can be captured.' The Duke (Cao Cao) followed this plan. On hearing that troops were crossing, Shao detached forces westward. The Duke (Cao Cao) then hurried in forced marches toward Baima. When he was still more than ten li away, Liang was greatly surprised and came out to fight. Zhang Liao and Guan Yu were sent forward first; they defeated and beheaded Liang. The Duke (Cao Cao) lifted the siege, moved Baima's people, and went west along the river. Shao crossed in pursuit and reached south of Yanjin. The Duke (Cao Cao) halted his troops below the southern slope of the camp and sent men up the ramparts to observe. They reported, 'About five or six hundred cavalry.' Soon they reported again, 'The cavalry are increasing, and the infantry are beyond counting.' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'No more reports.' He ordered his cavalry to unsaddle and turn their horses loose. Baima's baggage train was then on the road. The generals thought the enemy cavalry numerous and advised returning to the camp. Xun You said, 'This is our bait for the enemy. Why leave it?' Shao's cavalry commander Wen Chou and Liu Bei arrived in succession with five or six thousand horsemen. The generals again reported, 'We may mount now.' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'Not yet.' Soon more cavalry arrived, some turning aside toward the baggage. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'Now!' They all mounted. His cavalry numbered fewer than six hundred, but he released them to attack, decisively defeating the enemy and beheading Chou. Chou and Liang were both Shao's famous generals. Both were taken in two successive battles, greatly shaking Shao's army. The Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Guandu, and Shao advanced to hold Yangwu. Guan Yu fled back to Liu Bei.

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In the eighth month, Shao moved gradually forward with linked camps, establishing positions along sand mounds for several tens of li east to west. The Duke (Cao Cao) likewise divided his camps to face them. He gave battle but was unsuccessful.

The Duke (Cao Cao) then had fewer than ten thousand troops, of whom two or three in ten were wounded.

CommentaryI, your servant Songzhi, observe that Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) already had five thousand followers when he first raised troops. Thereafter he fought and won repeatedly, with defeats accounting for only two or three in ten engagements. In the single defeat of the Yellow Turbans he accepted more than three hundred thousand surrendered soldiers; the other forces he absorbed cannot all be listed. Even allowing for losses in campaigns, his troops should not have been so few. Holding fortified camps against each other differs from a decisive charge. These annals state that Shao had more than a hundred thousand men and camps extending tens of li east to west. Though Taizu of Wei (Cao Cao) was endlessly resourceful and possessed strategy rarely seen in any age, how could a few thousand soldiers have opposed them for so long? Reason leads me to doubt it. First, Shao's positions stretched tens of li, and the Duke (Cao Cao) could divide his camps to face them; therefore his troops cannot have been extremely few. Second, if Shao outnumbered him tenfold, he should have concentrated on surrounding him and blocking all passage. Yet the Duke (Cao Cao) sent Xu Huang and others against his supply carts and personally went against Chunyu Qiong, marching out and back with banners flying and no obstruction. Clearly Shao could not contain him. Third, the various books all say that the Duke (Cao Cao) put eighty thousand of Shao's men to death, or some say seventy thousand. Eight thousand men could not bind eighty thousand fugitives. How could he compel that great mass to fold their hands and submit to slaughter? Again, his troops cannot have been extremely few. The writer evidently sought to make his achievement marvelous by describing a small force, rather than recording the facts. Furthermore, the Biography of Zhong Yao says, 'While the Duke (Cao Cao) faced Shao, Yao, serving as Director of Retainers, sent more than two thousand horses to supply the army.' Yet these annals and Accounts of the Age both say that the Duke (Cao Cao) then had only some six hundred cavalry mounts. Where had Yao's horses gone?

Shao advanced again to Guandu, raising earth mounds and digging tunnels. The Duke (Cao Cao) constructed similar works inside to counter him. Shao shot into the camp, with arrows falling like rain. Everyone moving about covered himself with a shield, and the troops were terrified. Short of food, the Duke (Cao Cao) wrote to Xun Yu discussing withdrawal to Xu. Yu replied, 'Shao has massed all his men at Guandu to decide victory or defeat with you. You face the strongest with the weakest. If you cannot hold him, he will overwhelm you. This is the great turning point for the realm. Moreover, Shao is merely a hero of common origins: he can gather men but cannot use them. With your extraordinary martial skill and discernment, supported by the righteous cause, what undertaking could fail?' The Duke (Cao Cao) followed his advice.

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Hearing that the Duke (Cao Cao) and Shao faced each other, Sun Ce planned to attack Xu by surprise, but before setting out he was killed by assassins.

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Liu Pi and other surrendered rebels in Runan rose again in support of Shao and raided the area around Xu. Shao sent Liu Bei to assist Pi. The Duke (Cao Cao) sent Cao Ren, who defeated them. Bei fled, and Pi's camp was then destroyed.

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Several thousand carts bringing grain to Yuan Shao arrived. Adopting Xun You's plan, the Duke (Cao Cao) sent Xu Huang and Shi Huan to intercept them. They won decisively and burned all the carts. The Duke (Cao Cao) and Shao had opposed each other for successive months. Though he had repeatedly won battles and killed generals, his men were few, food was exhausted, and the soldiers were weary. He told the transport workers, 'In fifteen days I shall defeat Shao for you, and you will no longer have this labor.' In winter, in the tenth month, Shao sent carts carrying grain, escorted by Chunyu Qiong and four other officers with more than ten thousand men. They lodged forty li north of Shao's camp. Shao's adviser Xu You was greedy for wealth, and Shao could not satisfy him. He fled to the Duke (Cao Cao) and urged an attack on Qiong. The attendants doubted him, but Xun You and Jia Xu encouraged the Duke (Cao Cao). Leaving Cao Hong to guard the camp, he personally led five thousand infantry and cavalry out at night and arrived at dawn. Seeing his small force, Qiong's men formed up outside the gate. The Duke (Cao Cao) attacked urgently, forcing Qiong back into his camp, then assaulted it. Shao sent cavalry to relieve Qiong. Someone said, 'Enemy cavalry are approaching; please detach troops to resist them.' The Duke (Cao Cao) angrily replied, 'Report when the enemy is behind us!' The soldiers all fought to the death, decisively defeating Qiong and the others and beheading them all.

CommentaryThe Biography of Cao Man says: Hearing that You had arrived, the Duke (Cao Cao) went barefoot to meet him, clapped his hands, and laughed, saying, 'You have come from afar; my enterprise will succeed!' A variant reads, 'Ziyuan, you have come.' Once seated, You asked, 'Yuan's army is mighty. How will you withstand it? How much grain have you?' The Duke (Cao Cao) replied, 'Enough for a year.' You said, 'That is not so. Tell me again.' He replied, 'Enough for half a year.' You said, 'Do you not wish to defeat Yuan? Why speak untruthfully?' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'I was only joking. In fact, enough for one month. What should we do?' You replied, 'You hold out with an isolated army, without outside help, and your grain is exhausted. This is a crisis. Yuan has more than ten thousand baggage carts at Gushi and Wuchao, whose garrisons are poorly guarded. Strike them unexpectedly with light troops and burn their stores. In no more than three days, Yuan will collapse of himself.' Delighted, the Duke (Cao Cao) selected picked infantry and cavalry. All used Yuan's banners, held silence-gags in their mouths, and bound their horses' mouths. At night they took a concealed route, each carrying a bundle of firewood. If questioned along the way, they said, 'Lord Yuan (Yuan Shao) fears Cao Cao will raid the rear army and has sent troops to strengthen its defenses.' Those who heard believed them and remained at ease. Arriving, they surrounded the camp and set great fires, throwing it into panic. They won decisively and burned all the grain, treasure, and goods. They beheaded supervising commander Sui Yuanjin, cavalry commanders Han Juzi, Lü Weihuang, Zhao Rui, and others. General Chunyu Zhongjian was captured and his nose cut off, but he was not yet dead. They killed more than a thousand soldiers and took all their noses, cutting the lips and tongues from cattle and horses, to display to Shao's army. Officers and men were all terrified. That night someone captured Zhongjian and brought him before the Duke (Cao Cao). The Duke (Cao Cao) asked, 'How did you come to this?' Zhongjian said, 'Victory and defeat come from Heaven. Why ask?' The Duke (Cao Cao) intended to spare him. Xu You said, 'Tomorrow, when he looks in a mirror, he will remember you all the more.' A variant reads 'at dawn.' The Duke (Cao Cao) then killed him.

When Shao first heard that the Duke (Cao Cao) had attacked Qiong, he told his eldest son Tan, 'Even if he attacks Qiong, we will capture his camp, leaving him nowhere to return.' He sent Zhang He and Gao Lan against Cao Hong. Hearing that Qiong had been defeated, He and the others surrendered. Shao's forces collapsed. Shao and Tan abandoned the army and fled across the river. Pursuit failed to catch them. All their baggage, documents, and treasures were seized, and their troops captured.

CommentaryThe Record of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie)'s Daily Activities says: The Duke (Cao Cao) memorialized, 'General-in-Chief Yuan Shao, Marquis of Ye, formerly joined Han Fu, Governor of Ji Province, in attempting to enthrone the former Grand Marshal Liu Yu. He engraved a gold seal and sent Bi Yu, former head of Ren County, to Yu to explain prophecies concerning the mandate. Shao also wrote to me, "We can establish the capital at Juancheng; someone ought to be enthroned." He cast gold and silver seals without authority, and those recommended as Filial and Incorrupt and the accounting officers all went to him. His younger cousin Xu, Administrator of Jiyin, wrote to Shao, "The realm is now ruined. Heaven's intention truly favors our family, and divine signs show that it falls to you, honored elder brother. The ministers of our southern elder brother wished him to ascend the throne, but he said that the northern elder brother is older in years and higher in rank. He intended to send the seal, but Cao Cao blocked the road." Shao's clan had received great favors from the state for generations, yet its savage rebellion and lawlessness reached this point. I therefore mustered troops and horses and fought him at Guandu. Relying on the sacred court's authority, I obtained the heads of eight senior generals, including Chunyu Qiong, and routed his forces. Shao and his son Tan fled with little encumbrance. More than seventy thousand heads were taken in all, and the baggage and possessions were immense in value.'

Among Shao's papers, the Duke (Cao Cao) found letters from people at Xu and within his own army. He burned them all.

Many cities and towns in Ji Province surrendered in their entirety.

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Earlier, during Emperor Huan (Liu Zhi)'s reign, a yellow star appeared in the celestial divisions of Chu and Song. Yin Kui of Liaodong,

who was skilled in astronomy, said that fifty years later a true ruler would arise between Liang and Pei, with an irresistible force. Exactly fifty years had now passed; the Duke (Cao Cao) defeated Shao, and none in the realm could match him.

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In summer of the sixth year, in the fourth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) displayed his troops on the Yellow River, attacked Shao's army at Cangting, and defeated it. Shao returned, gathered his scattered soldiers, and attacked and pacified the commanderies and counties that had rebelled. In the ninth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Xu. Before Shao's defeat, he had sent Liu Bei to raid Runan, where rebels including Gong Du supported him. Cai Yang was sent against Du but was unsuccessful and defeated by him. The Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned south against Bei. Hearing that the Duke (Cao Cao) was coming personally, Bei fled to Liu Biao, and Du's followers scattered.

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In spring of the seventh year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) camped at Qiao and issued an order: 'I raised troops for the righteous cause to remove violence and disorder from the realm. Nearly all the people of my old homeland have died. I travel all day within the kingdom and see no one I recognize, filling me with sorrow. For officers and soldiers who have died without descendants since we raised troops, seek relatives to continue their lines. Grant them good fields, provide plow oxen from public funds, and establish teachers to instruct them. Build shrines for the survivors to sacrifice to their ancestors. If the souls of the dead possess awareness, what regret shall I have after my own death?' He then reached Junyi, repaired the Suiyang Canal, and sent an envoy to sacrifice to Qiao Xuan with a complete set of ox, sheep, and pig offerings.

CommentaryOrders of Commendation and Reward records the Duke (Cao Cao)'s sacrificial address: 'The late Grand Commandant, Lord Qiao, spread enlightened virtue, loved widely, and embraced generously. The state recalls your clear instruction; scholars remember your excellent counsel. Your spirit is hidden and your body concealed—how distant you now are! In my youth I was admitted to your halls. Despite my dull and humble nature, you, a great gentleman, received me. My growing honor and distinction came entirely from your encouragement, as Confucius acknowledged himself inferior to Yan Yuan, and Master Li warmly praised Jia Fu. A gentleman would die for one who understands him; I cherish this and never forget. I also received your leisurely, sworn words: "After I die, if you pass this way without bringing a dou of wine and a chicken to pour a libation for me, do not be surprised if your stomach aches three steps beyond my grave!" Though spoken in playful laughter at the time, how could anyone say this without the deep affection of an intimate friend? I do not mean that an angry spirit could cause me illness, but remembering the past, I look back in sorrow. Ordered to campaign east, I have camped in my homeland. Looking north toward your honored district, my thoughts turn to your tomb. I offer this modest sacrifice. May you partake of it!'

He advanced to Guandu.

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After his army's defeat, Shao fell ill and vomited blood. In summer, in the fifth month, he died. His youngest son Shang succeeded him, while Tan styled himself General of Chariots and Cavalry and camped at Liyang. In autumn, in the ninth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against them, fighting repeatedly. Tan and Shang were defeated several times and withdrew to defend their position firmly.

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In spring of the eighth year, in the third month, he attacked their outer walls. They came out to fight and were decisively defeated. Tan and Shang fled at night. In summer, in the fourth month, he advanced to Ye. In the fifth month he returned to Xu, leaving Jia Xin stationed at Liyang.

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On the jiyou day he ordered: 'The Methods of Sima says, "A general dies rather than retreat."

Thus Zhao Kuo's mother begged not to be punished along with Kuo. In antiquity, when a general's army was defeated outside, his family suffered punishment at home. Since I began appointing generals for campaigns, we have only rewarded merit and have not punished offenses. This is contrary to the state's regulations. Henceforth, generals sent on campaign whose armies are defeated shall answer for their offenses; those who suffer setbacks shall lose office and rank.'

CommentaryThe Book of Wei records an order of the gengshen day: 'Some argue that military officers, though capable and meritorious, lack the virtue needed for selection to commandery and kingdom posts, invoking the saying, "They may proceed along the Way with one, but may not exercise discretionary judgment with one." Guan Zhong said, "If worthy men receive sustenance according to ability, the ruler is honored; if fighting men receive sustenance according to merit, soldiers hold death lightly. Establish these two principles in the state and the realm is ordered." I have never heard that rewarding incapable men and noncombatants alike can build achievements and strengthen a state. Therefore an enlightened ruler does not appoint ministers without merit or reward soldiers who have not fought. In peaceful government virtue is esteemed; in times of action ability and merit are rewarded. Are these critics not like men looking at a tiger through a narrow tube?'

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In autumn, in the seventh month, he ordered: 'Fifteen years have passed since disorder began. Those born afterward have not seen the customs of benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and deference. This deeply grieves me. Let each commandery and kingdom cultivate learning. Counties with at least five hundred households shall establish school officials and select talented young men of their district for instruction. Thus the Way of the former kings may not perish, and the realm may benefit.'

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In the eighth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against Liu Biao and camped at Xiping. After he had left Ye and gone south, Tan and Shang fought over Ji Province. Defeated by Shang, Tan fled to defend Pingyuan. Shang attacked him hard, and Tan sent Xin Pi to request surrender and assistance. The generals all doubted him, but Xun You urged the Duke (Cao Cao) to agree.

The Duke (Cao Cao) brought his army back. In winter, in the tenth month, he reached Liyang and arranged a marriage between his son Zheng and Tan's family.

Hearing that the Duke (Cao Cao) had come north, Shang abandoned Pingyuan and returned to Ye. Lü Kuang and Lü Xiang of Dongping rebelled against Shang, stationed themselves at Yangping, and surrendered with their followers. They were enfeoffed as ranked marquises.

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In spring of the ninth year, in the first month, he crossed the Yellow River and diverted the Qi River into the White Canal to open a supply route. In the second month, Shang again attacked Tan, leaving Su You and Shen Pei to defend Ye. The Duke (Cao Cao) advanced to the Huan River, and You surrendered. On arriving, he attacked Ye with earth mounds and tunnels. Yin Kai, head of Wu'an County, held Maocheng and maintained the supply route from Shangdang. In summer, in the fourth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) left Cao Hong to attack Ye and personally defeated Kai before returning. Shang's general Ju Hu held Handan.

The Duke (Cao Cao) also attacked and captured Handan. Han Fan, Magistrate of Yiyang, and Liang Qi, head of She County, surrendered their counties and were granted the rank of Marquis within the Passes. In the fifth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) demolished the earth mounds and tunnels, dug an encircling trench, and diverted the Zhang River to flood the city. More than half the people inside died of hunger. In autumn, in the seventh month, Shang returned to relieve Ye. The generals all said, 'These are returning troops, and every man will fight for himself. Better avoid them.' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'If Shang comes by the main road, we should avoid him. If he follows the western hills, he will merely be captured.' Shang indeed came along the western hills and camped by the Fu River.

At night Shang sent troops to break the siege. The Duke (Cao Cao) met and routed them, then surrounded Shang's camp. Before the encirclement was complete, Shang grew frightened. Former Inspector of Yu Province Yin Kui and Chen Lin begged to surrender, but the Duke (Cao Cao) refused and pressed the siege harder. Shang fled at night to Qishan and was pursued. His generals Ma Yan, Zhang Yi, and others surrendered on the battlefield, and his forces collapsed. Shang fled to Zhongshan. All his baggage was captured, along with his seal, cord, credentials, and battle-axe. The Duke (Cao Cao) sent surrendered men to display these to Shang's people, shattering morale in the city. In the eighth month, Shen Pei's nephew Rong opened the east gate he guarded at night and admitted the troops. Pei resisted, was defeated, taken alive, and beheaded. Ye was pacified. The Duke (Cao Cao) went to sacrifice at Shao's tomb and wept. He comforted Shao's wife, returned the household's treasures, and granted assorted silks, floss, and grain rations.

CommentarySun Sheng says: In antiquity the kings punished and rewarded to deter evil, encourage good, and leave enduring warnings. Taking advantage of the age's danger, Shao conceived rebellious plans, challenging the imperial throne above and violating the state's order below. Executing such men at the altar and demolishing their houses was the ancient rule. Yet the Duke (Cao Cao) lavished grief on a rebel's tomb and favor on a voracious household. In this he stumbled in the way of government. Concealing resentment while befriending someone was despised by the ancient sages; giving carriage horses at an old lodging was an act of sincere loyalty, not false tears. If their principles differed and their friendship had ended, why weep? Emperor Gao of Han (Liu Bang) <Exalted Emperor; a posthumous title> erred thus concerning Xiang, and Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) repeated the mistake here. Was this not one error amid a hundred considerations?

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When Shao and the Duke (Cao Cao) first raised troops together, Shao asked, 'If the enterprise fails, what region could we hold?' The Duke (Cao Cao) replied, 'What do you think?' Shao said, 'With the Yellow River to the south and Yan and Dai as barriers to the north, I would combine the Rong and Di forces and contend for the realm facing south. Might that succeed?' The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'I shall employ the wisdom and strength of the realm and guide them by the Way. Nothing will be impossible.'

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In the ninth month he ordered, 'North of the Yellow River, the people have suffered from the Yuan house. Let them pay no rent or taxes this year!' He strengthened the laws against annexation of land by powerful families, and the people rejoiced.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei records his order: 'Those governing states and households worry not about scarcity but inequality, not about poverty but insecurity. Under the Yuan house, the powerful acted at will and their relatives accumulated property. Poor and weak commoners paid taxes in their place and sold their possessions, yet still could not meet demands. Shen Pei's clan even hid criminals and sheltered fugitives. How could such government win the people's allegiance or make its armies strong? Henceforth collect four sheng of grain per mu of land, and only two bolts of silk and two jin of floss per household. No other levies may be imposed without authorization. Commandery administrators and kingdom chancellors must investigate carefully, ensuring that powerful households conceal nothing and weak households do not bear others' taxes.'

The Son of Heaven appointed the Duke (Cao Cao) Governor of Ji Province concurrently. The Duke (Cao Cao) relinquished Yan Province.

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While the Duke (Cao Cao) besieged Ye, Tan seized Ganling, Anping, Bohai, and Hejian. After his defeat, Shang returned to Zhongshan. Tan attacked him, forcing him to flee to Gu'an, and absorbed his troops. The Duke (Cao Cao) wrote reproaching Tan for breaking their agreement, terminated the marriage alliance, and returned Tan's daughter, then advanced. Afraid, Tan evacuated Pingyuan and fled to defend Nanpi. In the twelfth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) entered Pingyuan and pacified the counties.

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In spring of the tenth year, in the first month, he attacked and defeated Tan, beheaded him, and executed his wife and children. Ji Province was pacified.

He ordered, 'Those who shared the Yuan house's wrongdoing shall be allowed a fresh start.' He forbade private revenge and lavish funerals, bringing all under a uniform law. That month, Yuan Xi's senior generals Jiao Chu, Zhang Nan, and others rebelled and attacked Xi and Shang, who fled to the Wuhuan of the three commanderies. Chu and the others surrendered their counties and were enfeoffed as ranked marquises. Earlier, during the campaign against Tan, some commoners fled from the labor of breaking ice.

An order forbade accepting their surrender. Soon some fugitives came to the gate to confess. The Duke (Cao Cao) told them, 'To accept you would violate the order; to kill you would punish those who confess. Go hide yourselves well and do not let the officers catch you.' They departed in tears, but were eventually captured.

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In summer, in the fourth month, Black Mountain rebel Zhang Yan surrendered with more than a hundred thousand followers and was enfeoffed as a ranked marquis. Zhao Du, Huo Nu, and others of Gu'an killed the Inspector of You Province and Administrator of Zhuo Commandery. The Wuhuan of the three commanderies attacked Xianyu Fu at Guangping.

In autumn, in the eighth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against them and beheaded Du and the others. He then crossed the Lu River to relieve Guangping. The Wuhuan fled beyond the frontier.

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In the ninth month he ordered: 'Factionalism and cliques were detested by the sages. I hear that in Ji Province fathers and sons belong to different factions and alternately slander and praise each other. Zhi Buyi had no elder brother, yet people accused him of having an illicit affair with his sister-in-law. Diwu Boyu married orphan women three times, yet was accused of beating his father-in-law. Wang Feng monopolized power, yet Gu Yong compared him to the Earl of Shen <a Zhou noble praised in the Book of Odes; personal name uncertain>. Wang Shang offered loyal counsel, yet Zhang Kuang accused him of heterodoxy. All these made black of white and deceived Heaven and their ruler. I wish to put customs in order. Unless these four sorts of conduct are removed, I shall be ashamed.' In winter, in the tenth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Ye.

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Earlier, Yuan Shao had appointed his nephew Gao Gan Governor of Bing Province. When the Duke (Cao Cao) took Ye, Gan surrendered and was made inspector. Hearing that the Duke (Cao Cao) was attacking the Wuhuan, Gan rebelled with his province, seized the Administrator of Shangdang, and raised troops to hold the entrance to Huguan. Yue Jin and Li Dian were sent against him, and he withdrew to defend Huguan city. In spring of the eleventh year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against Gan. Hearing this, Gan left a subordinate general to guard the city and fled to the Xiongnu, asking the Chanyu for help, but the Chanyu refused him. After a three-month siege the Duke (Cao Cao) captured Huguan. Gan fled to Jing Province, where Wang Yan, Commandant of Shangluo, captured and beheaded him.

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In autumn, in the eighth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned east against the coastal rebel Guan Cheng. At Chunyu, he sent Yue Jin and Li Dian, who defeated Cheng and drove him to the islands. He transferred Xiangben, Tan, and Qi from Donghai to Langye and abolished Changlü Commandery.

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Taking advantage of the realm's disorder, the Wuhuan of the three commanderies ravaged You Province and seized more than a hundred thousand Han households in total. Yuan Shao appointed all their chiefs chanyus and passed off girls from ordinary families as his own daughters and married them to the chiefs. Tadun, Chanyu of Liaoxi, was especially powerful and favored by Shao. Shang and his brother therefore joined him and repeatedly raided within the frontier. Preparing to campaign against them, the Duke (Cao Cao) dug a canal from the Hutuo into the Gu River,

calling it the Canal for Pacifying the Enemy. He also dug from the mouth of the Ju River

into the Lu River, naming it the Quanzhou Canal, to provide access to the sea.

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In spring of the twelfth year, in the second month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned from Chunyu to Ye. On the dingyou day [the source writes 丁酋, apparently for 丁酉] he ordered: 'It is now nineteen years since I raised troops for the righteous cause to punish violence and disorder. Every campaign has succeeded. Is that my own achievement? It is the strength of worthy officers and gentlemen. Though the whole realm is not yet settled, I must settle it together with them. How could I be at ease enjoying their labors alone? Assess their merits promptly and grant fiefs.' More than twenty meritorious men were then enfeoffed as ranked marquises, while the others received rewards in order of merit. The dependents of those who had died in service received exemptions of varying extent.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei records his order: 'When Zhao She and Dou Ying were generals, they received a thousand jin of gold and distributed it in a single day, thus accomplishing great deeds and leaving lasting reputations. Reading their accounts, I have always admired them. In campaigning with my generals and officers, I have fortunately benefited from worthy men who did not withhold their plans and soldiers who spared no effort. Thus dangers have been subdued and disorder pacified, while I have received a great reward, a fief of thirty thousand households. Recalling Dou Ying's generosity, I now distribute the rent I receive among the generals, staff, and former garrison soldiers of Chen and Cai, hoping to repay their labors rather than monopolize this great favor. Allot portions to the dependents of those who died in service, extending grain from the rent to them. If the year is abundant and our needs are met, when the full rent arrives I shall share it liberally with everyone.'

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As he prepared to campaign north against the Wuhuan of the three commanderies, the generals said, 'Yuan Shang is merely a fugitive. The foreign peoples are greedy and have no close affection for him; how could he use them? If we now penetrate deep against them, Liu Bei will certainly persuade Liu Biao to attack Xu. Should something change, regret would be useless.' Guo Jia alone judged that Biao would certainly be unable to employ Bei and urged the Duke (Cao Cao) onward. In summer, in the fifth month, he reached Wuzhong. In autumn, in the seventh month, great floods blocked the coastal road. Tian Chou offered to guide them, and the Duke (Cao Cao) accepted. The army went through Lulong Pass. The road beyond the frontier had fallen out of use, so they cut through hills and filled valleys for more than five hundred li, passing Baitan and Pinggang, crossing the Xianbei grounds, and heading east toward Liucheng. Only when they were within two hundred li did the enemy learn of them. Shang, Xi, Tadun, Louban, Chanyu of Liaoxi, and Nengchendizhi, Chanyu of Youbeiping, brought several tens of thousands of cavalry to meet them. In the eighth month, on ascending White Wolf Mountain, the Duke (Cao Cao) suddenly encountered a very large enemy force. His baggage wagons were behind him, and few men wore armor; his attendants were afraid. He climbed high ground, saw that the enemy formation was disordered, and released his troops to attack, appointing Zhang Liao as vanguard. The enemy collapsed. Tadun and other prominent kings and leaders of lower rank were beheaded, and more than two hundred thousand Hu and Han surrendered. Supuwan, Chanyu of Liaodong, and the chiefs of Liaoxi and Beiping abandoned their people and fled with Shang and Xi to Liaodong, still with several thousand cavalry. Earlier, Gongsun Kang, Administrator of Liaodong, had relied on his remoteness and refused submission. After the Duke (Cao Cao) defeated the Wuhuan, some urged him to campaign against Kang and capture the brothers. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'I shall have Kang behead Shang and Xi and send their heads without troubling our troops.' In the ninth month, he withdrew from Liucheng.

Kang promptly beheaded Shang, Xi, Supuwan, and others and sent their heads. Some generals asked, 'Why did Kang send their heads after you withdrew?' The Duke (Cao Cao) replied, 'He has always feared Shang and the others. If I pressure them, they combine; if I ease pressure, they scheme against one another. That follows from their situation.' In the eleventh month he reached the Yi River. Pufulu, acting Chanyu of the Wuhuan in Dai Commandery, and Nalou, acting Chanyu of the Wuhuan in Shang Commandery, brought their prominent kings to offer congratulations.

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In spring of the thirteenth year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Ye and built the Xuanwu Pool to train naval forces.

Han abolished the offices of the Three Excellencies and established a Chancellor and Imperial Counselor. In summer, in the sixth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) became Chancellor.

CommentaryThe Record of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie)'s Daily Activities says: Grand Minister of Ceremonies Xu Qiu was sent to confer the seal and cord. The Imperial Counselor did not concurrently hold the palace assistant's office; one Chief Clerk was established. Accounts of the Conduct of Former Worthies says: Qiu, courtesy name Mengping (a variant gives Mengyu), was from Guangling. From youth he was upright and clear-minded, and maintained a solemn bearing at court. He governed Rencheng, Runan, and Donghai, bringing good administration wherever he served. Summoned back, he was seized by Yuan Shu, who usurped an imperial title and wished to grant him the highest ministerial rank. Qiu never yielded. After Shu's death, he obtained Shu's seal and delivered it to the Han court, becoming Minister of the Guards and Grand Minister of Ceremonies. When the Duke (Cao Cao) became Chancellor, he offered the position to Qiu.

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In autumn, in the seventh month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned south against Liu Biao. In the eighth month, Biao died. His son Cong succeeded him and held Xiangyang; Liu Bei held Fan. In the ninth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) reached Xinye, and Cong surrendered, while Bei fled to Xiakou. Advancing to Jiangling, the Duke (Cao Cao) ordered that officials and people of Jing Province be given a fresh start. He assessed their service in submitting and enfeoffed fifteen men. He appointed Biao's senior general Wen Pin Administrator of Jiangxia, commanding his original troops, and employed notable men of Jing Province including Han Song and Deng Yi.

CommentaryWei Heng's Preface to the Forms of the Four Scripts says: Wang Cizhong of Shanggu excelled at clerical script and first devised model forms. Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) loved calligraphy, and many became accomplished. Shi Yiguan was foremost and very proud of his skill. Whenever he wrote, he scraped clean or burned his writing slips. Liang Hu therefore prepared extra tablets and gave him wine, waiting until he was drunk to steal his slips. Through mastering calligraphy, Hu eventually became Master of Writing for Selection. At that time the Duke (Cao Cao) wished to be Magistrate of Luoyang, but Hu appointed him Commandant of the Northern Section. Hu later joined Liu Biao. After Jing Province was pacified, the Duke (Cao Cao) offered a reward to find him. Afraid, Hu bound himself and came to the gate. He was appointed Acting Army Major and assigned to the Secretariat, applying himself to calligraphy. The Duke (Cao Cao) hung his writings in his tent and nailed them to walls to admire, saying they surpassed Yiguan's. Hu, courtesy name Menghuang, was from Anding. All the inscriptions on Wei's palaces were his work. Huangfu Mi's Biographies of Recluses says: Wang Jun of Runan, courtesy name Ziwen, was recognized in youth by Fan Pang and Xu Zhang, and was friendly with Cen Zhi of Nanyang. When the Duke (Cao Cao) was a commoner, he especially esteemed Jun; Jun likewise said the Duke (Cao Cao) possessed the means to govern an orderly age. When Yuan Shao and his younger brother Shu lost their mother and returned to bury her in Runan, Jun and the Duke (Cao Cao) attended, along with thirty thousand others. The Duke (Cao Cao) privately told Jun outside, 'The realm is about to become disordered, and these two will surely lead the disorder. If we wish to save the realm and plead for the people, unless we first kill them the trouble will begin now.' Jun said, 'If what you say is true, who but you can save the realm?' They looked at each other and laughed. Jun was outwardly calm and inwardly perceptive. He refused appointments from provinces, commanderies, and the offices of the Three Excellencies. Summoned by the imperial carriage office, he did not come, but took refuge in Wuling, where more than a hundred households joined him. After the emperor established his capital at Xu, Jun was again summoned as Master of Writing, but declined. Seeing Shao's strength, Liu Biao secretly allied with him. Jun told Biao, 'Lord Cao (Cao Cao) is the hero of the realm. He will establish hegemonic rule and continue the achievements of Duke Huan (Jiang Xiaobai) <Duke Huan of Qi> and Duke Wen (Ji Chonger) <Duke Wen of Jin>. Now you abandon what is near to pursue what is far. Should a sudden crisis arise, would it not be difficult to look for help from far north of the desert?' Biao did not listen. Jun died a natural death at sixty-four in Wuling, deeply grieving the Duke (Cao Cao). After pacifying Jing Province, the Duke (Cao Cao) personally went to the river to receive his remains, reburied him at Jiangling, and recommended recognition of him as a former worthy.

Liu Zhang, Governor of Yi Province, first accepted requisitions and sent troops to supply the army. In the twelfth month, Sun Quan attacked Hefei on Bei's behalf. The Duke (Cao Cao) set out from Jiangling against Bei, reached Baqiu, and sent Zhang Xi to relieve Hefei. Hearing that Xi had arrived, Quan withdrew. The Duke (Cao Cao) reached Red Cliffs and fought Bei unsuccessfully. A great epidemic then killed many officers and soldiers, and he withdrew. Bei consequently obtained Jing Province and the commanderies south of the Yangzi.

CommentaryThe Recorded Affairs of the Duke of Shanyang says: Bei burned the Duke (Cao Cao)'s ships. The Duke (Cao Cao) led his army back on foot along the Huarong road, where mud blocked passage and a strong wind blew. He ordered all the weak soldiers to carry grass to fill the road, allowing the cavalry through. Many weak soldiers were trampled by men and horses, sank into the mud, and died. Once the army escaped, the Duke (Cao Cao) was delighted. Asked why, he said, 'Liu Bei is my equal, but his plan came a little late. Had he set fires earlier, none of us would have survived.' Bei soon set fires too, but they reached no one. Sun Sheng's Assessment of Similarities and Differences says: According to the Book of Wu, Liu Bei first defeated the Duke (Cao Cao)'s army, after which Quan attacked Hefei. This account instead places the attack on Hefei before Red Cliffs. The two disagree; the Book of Wu is correct.

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In spring of the fourteenth year, in the third month, the army reached Qiao, where light boats were built and naval forces trained. In autumn, in the seventh month, he went from the Guo into the Huai, emerged by the Fei River, and camped at Hefei. On the xinwei day he ordered, 'Recently the army has campaigned repeatedly, sometimes encountering epidemic disease. Officers and soldiers have died without returning, families are bereaved and separated, and the people displaced. Could a benevolent man delight in this? It has been unavoidable. For families of the dead who lack property and cannot maintain themselves, the county authorities must not stop their grain rations. Senior officials shall care for and comfort them in accordance with my intention.' He appointed the senior officials of Yang Province's commanderies and counties and opened agricultural colonies at Shaopi. In the twelfth month the army returned to Qiao.

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In spring of the fifteenth year he ordered: 'Since antiquity, what ruler receiving the mandate or restoring a dynasty has failed to obtain worthy men to govern the realm with him? When found, such men were often still in the lanes of ordinary neighborhoods. Was meeting them mere luck? It was simply that those above had not sought them. The realm is still unsettled; this is precisely the urgent time to seek talent. "Meng Gongchuo would excel as steward to Zhao or Wei, but could not be a minister of Teng or Xue." If only incorrupt men could be employed, how could Duke Huan of Qi (Jiang Xiaobai) have become hegemon? Are there not men today who wear coarse clothes while harboring jade and fish on the banks of the Wei? Are there not men accused of having an illicit affair with a sister-in-law and accepting bribes who have yet to encounter a patron like Wei Wuzhi? Help me bring forward those of obscure station: recommend talent alone, so that I may employ it.' In winter he built the Bronze Sparrow Terrace.

CommentaryAnecdotes of Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) records an order of the jihai day in the twelfth month: 'When first recommended as Filial and Incorrupt, I was young. Knowing I was not a renowned recluse, I feared that people throughout the realm would regard me as ordinary and foolish. I wished to administer one commandery and govern well, building a reputation that scholars would recognize. Thus in Jinan I began removing cruelty and corruption, selected officials impartially, and offended the Regular Attendants. Fearing that the anger of powerful men would bring disaster on my family, I returned home pleading illness. I was still young after leaving office. Among men recommended in the same year, some were fifty and were still not considered old. I reckoned that I could withdraw for twenty years and wait for peace; I would then be only as old as those men had been when first recommended alongside me. I therefore returned home through the seasons and built a study fifty li east of Qiao, intending to read in summer and autumn and hunt in winter and spring. I sought low-lying ground, hoping mud and water would shield me and discourage visitors, but could not obtain my wish. Later I was summoned as commandant and promoted to Colonel of the Army. My intention changed: I wished to punish rebels and serve the state, hoping to be enfeoffed as a marquis and become General Who Conquers the West, so that my tomb inscription would read, "Tomb of Marquis Cao, former General Who Conquers the West of Han." Such was my ambition. Then Dong Zhuo's calamity arose, and I raised troops for the righteous cause. I could have gathered many troops, but always reduced their number rather than increase it. With many troops, ambition grows; contention with strong enemies might itself begin a new disaster. Thus at the Bian River I had several thousand men, and when I later recruited again in Yang Province, no more than three thousand. This shows the limits of my original ambition. Later I governed Yan Province and defeated and accepted the surrender of three hundred thousand Yellow Turbans. Yuan Shu then usurped an imperial title in Jiujiang. His followers called themselves ministers; he named a gate the Gate of Establishing the Title, and all his clothes and bedding followed imperial standards. Two wives even competed beforehand to be empress. His plan was settled, and when someone urged him formally to ascend the throne and proclaim it to the realm, he answered, "Lord Cao (Cao Cao) is still alive. It cannot yet be done." Later I attacked and captured his four generals and their men, driving Shu into exhaustion, flight, and collapse until he fell ill and died. When Yuan Shao held the lands north of the Yellow River with powerful troops, I judged that I truly could not match him. I intended only to die for the state and sacrifice myself for righteousness, leaving an example to posterity. Fortunately I defeated Shao and exposed the heads of his two sons. Liu Biao, considering himself a member of the imperial clan, harbored treacherous intentions, advancing and retreating to observe events while holding his province. I subdued it as well, thereby pacifying the realm. As Chancellor, I have reached the highest honor available to a subject, beyond my hopes. Speaking thus may seem self-important, but I conceal nothing because I wish people to understand fully. Had the state been without me, who knows how many would have proclaimed themselves emperors or kings? Some see my strength and, knowing that I do not put faith in claims of Heaven's mandate, privately judge me to harbor disloyal ambitions. Such groundless conjectures always trouble me. Duke Huan of Qi (Jiang Xiaobai) and Duke Wen of Jin (Ji Chonger) are praised to this day because, despite their great military power, they still served the Zhou house. The Analects says, "Possessing two-thirds of the realm, Zhou continued to serve Yin. Its virtue may be called the highest virtue." This is the ability of the greater to serve the lesser. When Yue Yi fled to Zhao, King Hui of Zhao (Zhao He) <a king of the Warring States state of Zhao> wished to plan against Yan with him. Yue Yi prostrated himself and wept, replying, "I served King Zhao (Ji Zhi) <King Zhao of Yan, patron of Yue Yi> as I serve Your Majesty. If I incurred blame and were banished abroad for life, I could not bear to plot even against Zhao's servants, much less Yan's royal descendants!" When Hu Hai killed Meng Tian, Tian said, "From my ancestors to their descendants, our family has accumulated trust with Qin for three generations. I now command more than three hundred thousand men, enough to rebel. Yet I uphold righteousness knowing I must die, because I dare not disgrace my ancestors' teaching or forget the former king." Whenever I read accounts of these two, I am moved to tears. From my grandfather to myself, we have all held positions of intimate trust. Including Zihuan and his brothers—a variant reads Zizhi—this extends beyond three generations. I say this not only to you, but often to my wives and concubines, making them understand deeply. I tell them, "After my death, you will all marry again. I wish you to transmit my intention so that others know it." These words come from the innermost heart. I explain myself so earnestly because I have seen how the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan) <a brother of the Zhou founding king and a regent> had the document in the Metal-bound Coffer to clarify his loyalty, fearing that people would not believe him. Yet for me simply to relinquish my troops to the authorities and retire to my fief as Marquis of Wuping is truly impossible. Why? I genuinely fear that without troops others would destroy me. Besides considering my descendants, my own defeat would imperil the state. I cannot pursue an empty reputation and suffer real disaster; this I cannot do. Earlier the court graciously enfeoffed three of my sons as marquises, which I firmly declined. Now I wish to accept, not for further glory, but to provide outside support and ensure complete security. Reading of Jie Zhitui avoiding Jin's fief and Shen Xu fleeing Chu's reward, I have always set down the book and sighed, reflecting on myself. Bearing the state's authority and campaigning with its battle-axe, I have overcome the strong with the weak and captured the great with the small. My plans have met no contrary outcome, and my deliberations have succeeded wherever directed, eventually pacifying the realm without disgracing my sovereign's commands. This may be called Heaven's aid to the Han house, rather than human effort. Yet my fief includes four counties and thirty thousand households. What virtue merits that? The rivers and lakes are not yet quiet, so I cannot relinquish office; but I may decline land and revenue. I now return twenty thousand households in Yangxia, Zhe, and Ku, retaining only ten thousand at Wuping. This should diminish the slander and lessen my responsibility.'

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In spring of the sixteenth year, in the first month,

the Son of Heaven appointed the Duke (Cao Cao)'s heir Pi General of the Gentlemen of the Household for the Five Offices, established his staff, and made him deputy to the Chancellor. Shang Yao and others of Taiyuan rebelled at Daling. Xiahou Yuan and Xu Huang were sent to besiege and defeat them. Zhang Lu held Hanzhong. In the third month Zhong Yao was sent against him, and the Duke (Cao Cao) ordered Yuan and the others to proceed through Hedong to join Yao.

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The generals of Guanzhong suspected that Yao intended to attack them. Ma Chao accordingly rebelled with Han Sui, Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi, and others. Cao Ren was sent against them. Chao and his allies camped at Tong Pass. The Duke (Cao Cao) instructed his generals, 'The troops west of the passes are fierce and skilled. Hold firm defenses and do not give battle.' In autumn, in the seventh month, he campaigned west.

He and Chao camped on opposite sides of the pass. While pressing them hard, he secretly sent Xu Huang, Zhu Ling, and others across Puban Ford at night to establish a camp west of the Yellow River. He himself crossed north from Tong Pass. Before he had finished, Chao rushed to the boats and attacked fiercely. Colonel Ding Fei released cattle and horses as bait. The enemy fell into disorder seizing them, and the Duke (Cao Cao) crossed safely.

He built a protected passage south along the river. The enemy withdrew to hold the mouth of the Wei. The Duke (Cao Cao) made numerous feints and secretly brought troops into the Wei by boat, built a pontoon bridge, and at night detached troops to establish a camp south of the Wei. The enemy attacked it by night, but hidden troops defeated them. Chao and the others camped south of the Wei and sent a message offering to cede territory west of the Yellow River in return for peace. The Duke (Cao Cao) refused. In the ninth month he advanced across the Wei.

CommentaryThe Biography of Cao Man says: Whenever the Duke (Cao Cao)'s army crossed the Wei, Chao's cavalry charged it, preventing the establishment of a camp. The ground was sandy and unsuitable for ramparts. Lou Zibo advised, 'It is cold now. Build a wall of sand and pour water over it; it can be completed overnight.' The Duke (Cao Cao) agreed, made many silk bags to carry water, and crossed troops at night to build the wall. By dawn it stood, and his entire army could cross. Some doubt this because water should not yet have frozen in the ninth month. I, your servant Songzhi, note from the Book of Wei that the army reached Tong Pass in the eighth month and crossed the Yellow River northward in an intercalary month. That year therefore had an intercalary eighth month; perhaps by this point severe cold was possible.

Chao and the others repeatedly challenged him to battle, but he refused. They insistently offered to cede territory and send sons as hostages. Following Jia Xu's plan, he pretended to agree. Han Sui requested a meeting. The Duke (Cao Cao) had been recommended as Filial and Incorrupt in the same year as Sui's father and had been a contemporary of Sui himself. They drew their horses alongside and talked for a long time, not of military affairs but old events in the capital, clapping hands and laughing. Afterward Chao and the others asked Sui, 'What did the Duke (Cao Cao) say?' Sui replied, 'Nothing in particular.' They became suspicious.

On another day the Duke (Cao Cao) sent Sui a letter with many alterations and deletions, as though Sui had revised it himself. Chao and the others suspected Sui still more. The Duke (Cao Cao) then fixed a day for battle. First he sent light troops to provoke them. After a long engagement, he released his elite cavalry in a flanking attack, winning decisively and beheading Cheng Yi, Li Kan, and others. Sui and Chao fled to Liang Province; Yang Qiu fled to Anding. Guanzhong was pacified. Some generals asked, 'At first the enemy held Tong Pass while the route north of the Wei was open. Why did you not attack Fengyi through Hedong, but instead remain at Tong Pass and cross north only after delaying?' The Duke (Cao Cao) replied, 'If I had entered Hedong while the enemy held Tong Pass, they would have guarded all the fords, preventing us from crossing west of the Yellow River. I therefore massed troops against Tong Pass. They gathered their whole force to defend southward, leaving their western defenses empty, so our two generals could secure the west bank. I then crossed north with the army. The enemy could not contest the west bank because those two armies were already there. We linked carts and erected palisades to make a protected passage south.

We thereby made ourselves secure while appearing weak. After crossing the Wei, we built firm defenses and did not come out when the enemy arrived, making them arrogant. They therefore sought peace by offering to cede territory, without building fortified camps. I agreed to their words to satisfy them, put them at ease, and prevent preparations. Meanwhile I conserved the soldiers' strength and struck suddenly, like thunder too swift for one to cover one's ears. Military adaptation certainly does not follow a single course.' Earlier, whenever another enemy contingent arrived, the Duke (Cao Cao) looked pleased. After their defeat, the generals asked why. He answered, 'Guanzhong is extensive. Had the enemy each held difficult ground, it would have taken a year or two to subdue them. Now all gathered together. Though numerous, they obeyed no common authority and had no single commander. They could be destroyed in one action, making the achievement easier. That is why I was pleased.'

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In winter, in the tenth month, the army went north from Chang'an against Yang Qiu and besieged Anding. Qiu surrendered; his rank and office were restored, and he was left to soothe his people.

In the twelfth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned from Anding, leaving Xiahou Yuan stationed at Chang'an.

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In spring of the seventeenth year, in the first month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Ye. Following the precedent of Xiao He, the Son of Heaven ordered that his personal name not be announced when he bowed, that he need not hasten when entering court, and that he could ascend the hall wearing sword and shoes. Liang Xing and other remnants of Ma Chao's forces camped at Lantian; Xiahou Yuan was sent to defeat them. The Duke (Cao Cao) added to Wei Commandery Dangyin, Zhaoge, and Linlü from Henei; Weiguo, Dunqiu, Dongwuyang, and Fagan from Dong Commandery; Yingtao, Quzhou, and Nanhe from Julu; Rencheng from Guangping; and Xiangguo, Handan, and Yiyang from Zhao.

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In winter, in the tenth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against Sun Quan.

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In spring of the eighteenth year, in the first month, he advanced to Ruxu Mouth, destroyed Quan's camp west of the river, and captured his commander Gongsun Yang, then withdrew. An edict consolidated the fourteen provinces into nine. In summer, in the fourth month, he reached Ye.

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In the fifth month, on the bingshen day, the Son of Heaven sent Imperial Counselor Xi Lü, bearing credentials, to confer on the Duke (Cao Cao) the title Duke of Wei (Cao Cao) <a ducal title granted to Cao Cao during the Han dynasty>

CommentaryThe Continued Book of Han says: Lü, courtesy name Hongyu, was from Gaoping in Shanyang. In youth he studied under Zheng Xuan and became Palace Attendant early in Jian'an. Yu Pu's Account of the Lands beyond the Yangzi says: Emperor Xian (Liu Xie) once granted a special audience to Lü and Minister Steward Kong Rong and asked Rong, 'What are Hongyu's particular strengths?' Rong replied, 'One may proceed along the Way with him, but not exercise discretionary judgment with him.' Lü raised his court tablet and said, 'When Rong governed Beihai, administration collapsed and the people scattered. Where was his discretionary judgment?' They disparaged each other and became hostile. The Duke (Cao Cao) reconciled them by letter. Lü was promoted from Minister of the Household to Imperial Counselor.

with these words:

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'I, lacking virtue, suffered misfortune in youth, lived far away in the western lands, and moved to Tang and Wei. At that time I was like a dangling banner streamer,

the ancestral temples lacked sacrifices and the altars of soil and grain lacked their proper places. Violent men coveted power and divided the Chinese lands. Of all the people under Heaven, I possessed none, and Gaozu (Liu Bang)'s mandate was about to fall to the ground. I rose early and barely slept, trembling and grieving in my heart: "Among my ancestors and fathers and their supporting ministers of former times,

who can care for me?" Heaven's kindly intention was then moved to bring forth the Chancellor, who protected and governed our imperial house and gave great help amid hardship. I have truly depended upon him. I now confer on you the prescribed honors. Listen reverently to my command.

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'When Dong Zhuo first brought calamity on the state, the regional lords laid aside their own affairs to plan for the royal house.

You advanced and first initiated the military action. This was your loyalty to the dynasty. When the Yellow Turbans overturned Heaven's order, invaded our three provinces, and afflicted the common people, you cut them down and brought peace to the eastern lands. This too was your achievement. When Han Xian and Yang Feng usurped authority and command, you punished them and removed that danger, moved the capital to Xu, established our capital district, appointed officials, and prepared sacrifices without losing the old institutions. Heaven, earth, and the spirits thereby regained order. This too was your achievement. Yuan Shu usurped and rebelled, acting unrestrained in Huainan but fearing your might. You employed brilliant plans: at Qiyang, Qiao Rui yielded his head; your formidable power advanced south, and Shu collapsed. This too was your achievement. Turning your weapons east, you brought Lü Bu to execution. As your carriage was about to return, Zhang Yang died, Sui Gu was punished, and Zhang Xiu submitted. This too was your achievement. Yuan Shao defied Heaven's order and plotted danger to the state, relying on his numbers to raise troops against it. The royal army was then few and weak; all the realm was chilled with fear, and none stood firm. You held to your great duty, your sincerity piercing the sun, roused your martial anger, and employed your extraordinary strategy. At Guandu you brought matters to their limit and destroyed the wicked host,

saving our state from ruin. This too was your achievement. You brought your army across the great Yellow River and secured four provinces. Yuan Tan and Gao Gan both had their heads exposed; coastal rebels fled, and the Black Mountains submitted to order. This too was your achievement. The three Wuhuan groups fostered disorder for two generations. Yuan Shang relied on them and held the northern frontier. Binding horses and suspending carts through difficult ground, you destroyed them in one campaign. This too was your achievement. Liu Biao was disloyal and deceitful and failed to render tribute. As the royal army set out, your imposing influence preceded it. A hundred cities in eight commanderies submitted with folded arms and bent knees. This too was your achievement. Ma Chao and Cheng Yi aided each other's wickedness and occupied the river and Tong Pass to pursue their desires. You destroyed them south of the Wei, presenting enemy ears by the tens of thousands, then secured the frontier and brought harmony to the Rong and Di. This too was your achievement. The Xianbei and Dingling came through successive interpreters; chanyus and common households requested officials and fulfilled their duties. A variant writes "chanyu" differently. This too was your achievement. To the merit of settling the realm you have added enlightened virtue, ordering all within the seas, improving customs, extending diligent instruction, and treating criminal cases with care. Officials impose no harsh rule, and the people harbor no evil. You honor the imperial clan and recommend heirs for extinguished lines; past virtue and former service are all recognized in due rank. Even Yi Yin's reaching to august Heaven and the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan)'s glory throughout the four seas scarcely compare.

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'I have heard that the former kings established men of enlightened virtue, rewarded them with land and people, exalted their honors, and supplied their ritual objects, so that they would defend the royal house and assist it through the generations. In King Cheng of Zhou (Ji Song) <King Cheng of the Zhou dynasty>'s time, Guan and Cai caused disorder. Taking warning from calamity and remembering merit, he sent Duke Kang of Shao (Ji Shi) <Duke Kang of Shao, an early Zhou statesman> to grant the Grand Duke of Qi (Jiang Shang) <founder of the Zhou state of Qi> territorial bounds: east to the sea, west to the Yellow River, south to Muling, and north to Wudi. He could campaign against lords of the five ranks and chiefs of the nine regions; the Grand Preceptor's descendants would hold hereditary dominion to safeguard the eastern sea. In King Xiang (Ji Zheng) <King Xiang of the Zhou dynasty>'s time, Chu likewise failed in its royal duties, and he appointed Duke Wen of Jin (Ji Chonger) chief of the lords, giving him two carriages, tiger-brave guards, battle-axes, black-millet sacrificial wine, and bows and arrows. He greatly extended Nanyang for him, making his house hereditary leader of the alliance. The Zhou house survived through reliance on these two states. Now you possess great and brilliant virtue, clearly protecting me, answering Heaven's mandate, and displaying great achievements. You have brought peace to the nine regions, and none fails to obey,

your merit surpasses Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan), yet your reward is less than that of Qi and Jin. I am deeply ashamed. In my slight person I am placed above the countless people. Thinking always of its difficulty, as though crossing deep water on ice, I could not bear this burden without your aid. I now enfeoff you as Duke of Wei (Cao Cao) with ten commanderies of Ji Province: Hedong, Henei, Wei, Zhao, Zhongshan, Changshan, Julu, Anping, Ganling, and Pingyuan. I grant you black soil wrapped in white cogon grass; consult your tortoise and establish the great altar of soil. In the Zhou house, the Dukes of Bi and Mao served within as ministerial advisers, while the Dukes of Zhou and Shao, preceptor and protector, served outside as the two regional chiefs. You are suited to duties both within and without. Continue as Chancellor and concurrent Governor of Ji Province. I also confer the Nine Bestowals. Listen reverently to my command.

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'You have ordered ritual and law, providing standards for the people so that they remain settled in their occupations without changing their purpose. I therefore grant you one great carriage and one war carriage, with two teams of four black stallions. You encourage distribution and attention to agriculture, and farmers labor diligently,

grain and silk accumulate, and the great enterprise flourishes. I therefore grant you the dragon-patterned robe and ceremonial crown, together with red ceremonial shoes. You earnestly esteem modesty and deference, encouraging these practices among the people, with propriety between young and old and harmony between high and low. I therefore grant you music with bells suspended on three sides and dances in six rows. You spread moral transformation in all directions; distant peoples change their bearing, and the Chinese lands become prosperous. I therefore grant you a residence with red doors. You deepen your wisdom, consider the sovereign's difficulties, appoint the capable and worthy, and bring forward all the good. I therefore grant you a special stairway for ascent. You hold the state's balance, remain stern and upright at its center, and suppress even the smallest evil. I therefore grant you three hundred tiger-brave guards. You reverently examine Heaven's laws and make guilt manifest,

executing all who breach barriers or violate the established order. I therefore grant you one of each kind of battle-axe. Rising like a dragon and watching like a tiger, you survey the eight directions, punish disloyalty, and repel attacks throughout the four seas. I therefore grant you one red bow with a hundred red arrows, and ten black bows with a thousand black arrows. Gentleness and respect are your foundation; filial and fraternal affection your virtue. Your clarity, fairness, sincerity, and good faith move my thoughts. I therefore grant you a vessel of black-millet sacrificial wine with a jade-handled ladle. The state of Wei shall establish a Chancellor and the other ministers and officials, following the system of the feudal kings at the beginning of Han. Go forth reverently and obey my command! Select and care for your people, aid every undertaking in its season, perfect your illustrious virtue, and glorify Gaozu (Liu Bang)'s gracious mandate!'

CommentaryThese words were composed by Pan Xu, Left Assistant to the Masters of Writing under Later Han. Xu, courtesy name Yuanmao, was from Zhongmu in Chenliu. The Book of Wei records the Duke (Cao Cao)'s order: 'Receiving the Nine Bestowals and greatly extending one's territory was fitting for the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan). Han's eight kings of other surnames rose from common status with Gaozu (Liu Bang) and helped establish his kingship, rendering the greatest service. How could I compare?' He declined three times. Central Military Adviser Wang Ling; Xun You, Marquis of Xie District; Forward Military Adviser Zhong Yao, Marquis of Dongwu District; Left Military Adviser Liang Mao; Right Military Adviser Mao Jie; General Who Pacifies the Enemy Liu Xun, Marquis of Hua Township; General Who Establishes Martial Might Liu Ruo, Marquis of Qingyuan District; General Who Subdues the Waves Xiahou Dun, Marquis of Gao'an; General Who Displays Martial Might Wang Zhong, a district marquis; General Who Exerts Authority Liu Zhan, Marquis of Le Township; General Who Establishes Loyalty Xianyu Fu, Marquis of Chang Township District; General of Exerting Martial Might Cheng Yu, Marquis of Anguo District; Senior Palace Counselor Jia Xu, a township marquis; Chief Military Adviser Dong Zhao, Marquis of Qianqiu District; district marquis Xue Hong; Dong Meng, Marquis of Nan Township District; marquises within the passes Wang Can and Fu Xun; advisers Wang Xuan, Yuan Huan, Wang Lang, Zhang Cheng, Ren Fan, and Du Xi; Central Protector of the Army Cao Hong, Marquis of Guoming District; Central Supervisor of the Army Han Hao, Marquis of Wansui District; acting General of Valiant Cavalry Cao Ren, Marquis of Anping District; acting Army Protector General Wang Tu; chief clerks Wan Qian, Xie Huan, Yuan Ba, and others urged acceptance: 'Since the Three Dynasties, rewarding ministers with land and enfeoffing advisers under new mandates or restored dynasties has praised merit, rewarded virtue, and provided defenses for the state. Formerly the realm collapsed, and violent men rose in numbers. The peril of overthrow and lawlessness cannot bear description. You risked your life against this calamity, punished the two Yuans' usurpation, destroyed the Yellow Turban rebels, eliminated the chief traitors, and cleared away devastation. Exposed to frost and dew for more than twenty years, you have achieved what no one has since written records began. The Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan) inherited the achievements of Kings Wen and Wu and an already established enterprise. At ease with brush in hand, he received the homage of the lords; his labor against Shang and Yan lasted no more than two years. Lü Wang benefited from control of two-thirds of the realm and the strength of eight hundred lords; he briefly held the command flag and axe and directed one campaign. Yet both received great territories spanning provinces and states. The Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan)'s eight sons all became lords. White and red sacrificial oxen, suburban sacrifices to Heaven and earth, documents and ritual objects modeled on the royal house—such vast honors were theirs. At Han's rise, assisting ministers Zhang Er and Wu Rui rendered comparatively slight service, yet received linked cities and broad lands, facing south as rulers. Enlightened sovereigns conferred these honors and worthy ministers accepted them: admirable regulations of the Three Dynasties and clear institutions of Han. Compared in labor, Zhou and Lü were at ease; in merit, Zhang and Wu were slight; in privileges, Qi and Lu had more; in land, Changsha was greater. Thus the fief of Wei and honor of the Nine Bestowals, compared with earlier rewards, are still like wearing coarse clothes while harboring jade. Hundreds of generals and ranked marquises have fortunately followed your rise and contributed slight service, wearing purple cords and golden seals which will pass to their descendants. If you alone refuse reward above, those below will feel insecure. This opposes the sacred court's wishes and disappoints the highest hopes of its officials, neglecting the great task of assisting government for the narrow scruples of a private man. This is what we greatly fear.' The Duke (Cao Cao) ordered a memorial prepared accepting only Wei Commandery. You and the others again said, 'When Wei was first enfeoffed, the sacred court considered the matter and consulted all its officials before issuing the command. Yet you long resisted its intention and did not accept the great ceremony. Now, having reverently accepted the edict and fulfilled everyone's hopes, you wish to decline much and take little, yielding nine and accepting one. This still leaves Han's reward unfulfilled and our request unaccepted. Qi and Lu's fiefs encompassed the eastern sea and four million households under their territorial and tax systems. Their broad foundations made achievement easier, enabling them to support the dynasty and unify the age. Although Wei has ten commanderies in name, it is still smaller than Qufu and has fewer than half its households. Even this is insufficient to defend the royal house and stand as its protective wall. Moreover, the sovereign has seen how Qin perished without supports and taken warning from earlier upheavals. He entrusts the establishment of defenses to loyal and worthy men and restores what has fallen. We ask that you reverently receive his command and not resist it.' The Duke (Cao Cao) then accepted. A Brief History of Wei records his memorial of thanks: 'Through the former emperor's great favor, I reached the gentlemen's offices. By nature indolent, I was fully satisfied in my hopes, never daring to aspire to high office or distinction. When Dong Zhuo rebelled, duty required risking death in the crisis. I therefore ventured my life, leading men into battle, and encountered a once-in-a-thousand-years opportunity to serve before Your Majesty. When the two Yuans surged up to attack, Your Majesty and I shared fear and anxiety. Looking back toward the capital while facing fierce enemies, I feared ruler and minister would alike fall into a tiger's mouth; I never expected to preserve my life. Thanks to the ancestral spirits, the wicked were destroyed, allowing this humble servant to gain a name. Your Majesty graciously made me chief minister and bestowed rank and rich revenue beyond anything I had hoped in life. In word and thought I wished only to remain at my post, preserve my marquisate for my children, and live under this sacred reign without anxiety or reproach. Unexpectedly Your Majesty has resolved to establish a state and confer the complete bestowals upon me, with land comparable to Qi and Lu and ritual equal to that of feudal kings. Such honors are not fitting for an unmeritorious servant. I expressed my feelings, but my request was denied; your stern edict has pressed me on every side. Reflecting that I stand among the great ministers, subject to the royal house, I know my person is not my own. How dare I insist on my foolish wish, lest I be dismissed and returned to my original station? I now receive the territory to serve among your defenses, not presuming to long expectations for later generations. Father and sons swear to spend our lives and bodies repaying this great favor. Your heavenly majesty is before me; in fear and trembling I accept the edict.'

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In autumn, in the seventh month, Wei first established its altars of soil and grain and ancestral temples. The Son of Heaven betrothed the Duke (Cao Cao)'s three daughters as Honored Ladies; the youngest remained in Wei until old enough.

In the ninth month, the Golden Tiger Terrace was built, and a canal dug to divert the Zhang into the White Canal and connect to the Yellow River. In winter, in the tenth month, Wei Commandery was divided into eastern and western sections, each with a commandant. In the eleventh month, offices of Masters of Writing, Palace Attendants, and the Six Ministers were first established.

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In Hanyang, Ma Chao again used Qiang and Hu forces to cause trouble. Qianwan, king of the Di, rebelled in his support and camped at Xingguo. Xiahou Yuan was sent against him.

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In spring of the nineteenth year, in the first month, the ceremonial plowing of the royal field began. Zhao Qu of Nan'an, Yin Feng of Hanyang, and others attacked Chao and exposed the heads of his wife and children. Chao fled to Hanzhong. Han Sui moved to Jincheng and joined the forces of Qianwan, king of the Di. He fought Xiahou Yuan with more than ten thousand Qiang and Hu cavalry, was decisively defeated, and fled to Xiping. Yuan and the generals attacked and sacked Xingguo. Andong and Yongyang commanderies were abolished.

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As Guanqiu Xing, Administrator of Anding, was about to take office, the Duke (Cao Cao) warned him: 'If the Qiang and Hu wish to communicate with China, they will send men themselves. Be careful not to send anyone to them. Good men are hard to find. An envoy will surely teach them to make improper requests for his own profit. Refusing would offend foreign customs; agreeing would bring no benefit.' On arriving, Xing sent Colonel Fan Ling among the Qiang. Ling indeed taught them to request that he be made Commandant of a Dependent State. The Duke (Cao Cao) said, 'I knew beforehand this would happen. Not because I am a sage, but because I have seen much of affairs.'

CommentaryThe Record of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie)'s Daily Activities says: Minister of Finance Wang Yi, Marquis of Anyang District and acting Grand Minister of Ceremonies, and Liu Ai, Minister of the Imperial Clan, were sent bearing credentials, with five attendants, bundles of silk, and teams of four horses. With a Gentleman Attendant of the Yellow Gates, Assistant of the Palace Gardens, and two Regular Palace Attendants, they received the two Honored Ladies in the Duke of Wei (Cao Cao)'s state. In the second month, on the guihai day, the two ladies were granted seals and cords in the Duke (Cao Cao)'s ancestral temple. On the jiazi day they went to Yanqiu Gate of his palace and escorted the ladies into their carriages. Wei sent its Minister of the Household, Minister Steward, Erudites, Director of the Imperial Yellow-Horse Stables, and the Chancellor's staff to accompany them. On the guiyou day they reached Weicang; Palace Attendant Dan was sent with attendant tiger-brave guards in successive relays to receive them. On the yihai day the two ladies entered the palace. The Imperial Counselor and officials of full two-thousand-bushel rank led great officers and Consultants in assembling in the hall. Two ministers of Wei, together with Palace Attendants and two palace gentlemen, ascended the hall and feasted with Han's high ministers.

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In the third month, the Son of Heaven placed the Duke of Wei (Cao Cao) above the feudal kings and granted him a gold seal, red cord, and Far-Roaming Crown.

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In autumn, in the seventh month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned against Sun Quan.

CommentaryThe Spring and Autumn Annals of the Nine Provinces says: Military Adviser Fu Gan remonstrated, 'There are two great instruments for governing the realm: civil cultivation and military force. Military action gives precedence to authority; civil action to virtue. Only when authority and virtue support each other is the kingly way complete. Formerly the realm was greatly disordered and high and low lost their proper order. You used force to dispel this, pacifying nine parts in ten. Only Wu and Shu have not accepted royal commands. Wu has the barrier of the great Yangzi, and Shu that of lofty mountains. They are difficult to subdue by authority but easy to win by virtue. I suggest laying aside armor and arms for now, resting the army and nourishing the men, dividing territory, fixing fiefs, assessing merit, and giving rewards. This will secure hearts within and without, encourage those with achievements, and make the realm understand the order of government. Then gradually establish schools to guide people's good nature and develop righteousness. Your extraordinary martial strength already shakes the four seas. Supplement it with civil cultivation, and none under Heaven will think of refusing allegiance. If you now bring a hundred thousand men to halt on the Yangzi, while the enemy hides deep within strong defenses, soldiers and horses cannot display their abilities, nor stratagems their adaptability. Your great authority will be checked without subduing the enemy's hearts. Consider Yu Shun's meaning in dancing with shield and axe: preserve authority, nurture virtue, and win through the Way.' The Duke (Cao Cao) did not listen, and the campaign achieved nothing. Gan, courtesy name Yancai, was from Beidi. He ended his career as an officer of the Chancellor's Granary Section and had a son named Xuan.

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Earlier, Song Jian of Longxi had styled himself King of the River's Upper Reaches Who Pacifies Han. Gathering followers at Fuhan, he adopted an era name and appointed officials for more than thirty years. Xiahou Yuan was sent against him from Xingguo. In winter, in the tenth month, he sacked Fuhan and beheaded Jian. Liang Province was pacified.

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The Duke (Cao Cao) returned from Hefei.

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In the eleventh month, Han's Empress Fu was implicated in an earlier letter to her father Wan, former Colonel of Garrison Cavalry. It said that the emperor resented the Duke (Cao Cao) over Dong Cheng's execution and used very bitter language. The letter was discovered. The empress was deposed and died, and her brothers were all executed.

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In the twelfth month, the Duke (Cao Cao) reached Mengjin. The Son of Heaven authorized him to employ plume-bearing outriders and place bells and their frames in his palace halls. On the yiwei day he ordered, 'Men of good conduct are not necessarily able to achieve things; men able to achieve things do not necessarily have good conduct. Was Chen Ping devoted to virtuous conduct, or Su Qin trustworthy? Yet Chen Ping secured Han's enterprise, and Su Qin aided weak Yan. Can a man's particular shortcomings justify discarding him? If the authorities understand this, no talent will be overlooked and no office's work neglected.' He also said, 'Punishments determine the people's lives. Yet some handling prisons in the army are unsuited to it, though entrusted with the life and death of all its troops. This deeply concerns me. Select those who clearly understand legal principles to administer punishments.' Officers of the Judicial Section were therefore established.

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In spring of the twentieth year, in the first month, the Son of Heaven made the Duke (Cao Cao)'s middle daughter empress. Yunzhong, Dingxiang, Wuyuan, and Shuofang commanderies were abolished, each reduced to one county administering its people, and combined into Xinxing Commandery.

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In the third month, the Duke (Cao Cao) campaigned west against Zhang Lu. At Chencang he intended to enter Di territory through Wudu. The Di blocked the road, so Zhang He, Zhu Ling, and others were sent ahead to defeat them. In summer, in the fourth month, he left Chencang through San Pass and reached Hechi. Dou Mao, king of the Di, had more than ten thousand followers and relied on difficult terrain to refuse submission. In the fifth month the Duke (Cao Cao) attacked and slaughtered his forces. Generals Qu Yan, Jiang Shi, and others of Xiping and Jincheng joined in beheading Han Sui and sending his head.

In autumn, in the seventh month, the Duke (Cao Cao) reached Yangping. Zhang Lu sent his younger brother Wei and General Yang Ang and others to hold Yangping Pass, building walls across the mountains for more than ten li. Unable to capture them, the Duke (Cao Cao) withdrew. Seeing the main army retreat, the enemy relaxed their defenses. He secretly sent Xie [解𢢼; given-name reading uncertain] and Gao Zuo and others through the difficult terrain to attack at night, decisively defeating them and beheading General Yang Ren. They advanced against Wei, who fled with the others at night. Lu's forces collapsed, and he fled to Bazhong. The Duke (Cao Cao)'s army entered Nanzheng and obtained all the treasures in Lu's storehouses.

Ba and Han both surrendered. Hanning Commandery was restored to the name Hanzhong. Anyang and Xicheng were separated from Hanzhong to form Xicheng Commandery, with an administrator. Xi and Shangyong were also separated out, and a commandant was appointed [the wording and administrative arrangement are uncertain].

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In the eighth month, Sun Quan besieged Hefei, but Zhang Liao and Li Dian defeated him.

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In the ninth month, Pu Hu, king of the peoples of Ba's seven surnames, and Du Huo, Marquis of Congyi, brought the Ba peoples and Cong people to submit.

Ba Commandery was then divided. Hu became Administrator of Badong and Huo Administrator of Baxi; both were enfeoffed as ranked marquises. The Son of Heaven authorized the Duke (Cao Cao) to grant fiefs and appoint commandery administrators and kingdom chancellors on imperial authority.

CommentaryKong Yan's Spring and Autumn Annals of Han and Wei says: Because the Duke (Cao Cao) held responsibilities outside the court and rewards on campaigns sometimes required speed, the Son of Heaven authorized him to grant fiefs and appoint administrators and chancellors. The edict said, 'The great business of armies lies in rewards and punishments. Encouraging good and deterring evil should not be delayed. Hence the Methods of Sima says, "Rewards shall not pass beyond the day," so that people promptly see the benefit of good conduct. At the restoration, Deng Yu entered the passes and appointed military adviser Li Wen Administrator of Hedong on imperial authority. Lai Xi likewise appointed Gao Jun General Who Opens the Routes. Their biographies show neither had asked permission first; clearly they engraved seals when circumstances arose. This reflected Shizu (Liu Xiu) <Epochal Ancestor; temple name of the Eastern Han restorer>'s extraordinary wisdom and adaptable judgment, swiftly displaying authority and kindness to achieve great deeds. Under the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, great officers beyond the frontier may exercise independent authority, provided it benefits the state and secures government. How much more appropriate for you, bearing the responsibility of the two regional chiefs, overseeing the nine regions, and campaigning among foreign and Chinese peoples beyond the royal domains, where success or failure depends upon moments. Delaying rewards to await an edict and obstruct affairs is not my intention. Henceforth, those you select for honors may immediately receive newly engraved seals. Let the loyal and righteous encourage each other; have no doubts.'

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In winter, in the tenth month, ranks from Marquis by Title to Grand Officer of the Fifth Rank were first established. Together with the existing Ranked Marquis and Marquis within the Passes, these made six grades to reward military merit.

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In the eleventh month, Lu surrendered from Bazhong with his remaining followers. He and all five of his sons were enfeoffed as ranked marquises. Liu Bei had attacked Liu Zhang, taken Yi Province, and occupied Bazhong. Zhang He was sent against him.

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In the twelfth month the Duke (Cao Cao) returned from Nanzheng, leaving Xiahou Yuan stationed in Hanzhong.

CommentaryOn this campaign Palace Attendant Wang Can composed a five-character poem praising its achievements: 'Military service has hardship and joy; ask only whom you follow. Our leader is inspired and martial; how could he long weary his army? The Chancellor campaigns west of the passes, his mighty anger rousing Heaven's authority. One stroke destroys the fierce enemy, another subdues the Qiang peoples. Rebels in western frontier lands fall as easily as lost objects picked from the ground. Rewards rise beyond mountains; wine and meat exceed river shoals. The army is richly supplied; men and horses grow abundantly stout. Those who walked return riding, those who left empty-handed have wealth to spare. Territory extends three thousand li; our journey out and back is swift as flight. Singing and dancing, we enter Ye; all our wishes have been fulfilled.'

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In spring of the twenty-first year, in the second month, the Duke (Cao Cao) returned to Ye.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: On the xinwei day, officials announced his arrival with complete sacrificial offerings and recorded his merits at the temple. On the jiawu day the spring sacrifice was first performed. He ordered, 'Some argue that one should remove one's shoes before ascending the temple hall. I received imperial authorization to ascend the hall wearing sword and shoes. To remove my shoes at the temple would honor my forefathers while diminishing the royal command, respecting my ancestors while slighting my ruler. Therefore I dare not remove them. Again, at the washing place one holds one's hands toward the water without washing. Washing honors through cleanliness; I have never heard of a rite of merely gesturing without washing. Moreover, "Sacrifice to the spirits as though they were present." I therefore personally receive the water and wash. After the invocation rite, one descends the steps to stand by the tent until the music ends. Though apparently without fault, this delays the sacrifice to the glorious ancestors rather than concluding it promptly. I therefore remain seated until the music ends and the spirits are sent off, then rise. At the receiving of sacrificial meat and the bringing in of the spirit, one hands it over to a Palace Attendant [the ritual wording here is uncertain]. This fails to maintain reverence to the end. The ancients personally performed sacrificial duties, so I personally perform the bringing-in rite for the spirit and carry it back in my arms to the end [the ritual object is uncertain]. Confucius said, "Though I differ from the multitude, I follow the practice of bowing below." True indeed are these words.'

In the third month, on the renyin day, the Duke (Cao Cao) personally plowed the ceremonial field.

In summer, in the fifth month, the Son of Heaven elevated the Duke (Cao Cao) to King of Wei (Cao Cao) <a royal title granted to Cao Cao during the Han dynasty>.

CommentaryThe Account of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie) records the edict: 'Since antiquity, rulers' titles and ranks have changed, but in honoring great merit, establishing achievements, and glorifying family names for descendants, how could unrelated families differ from kin? Our sacred founder received the mandate, founded the enterprise, and established our Chinese realm. Examining ancient and modern systems and adapting differences of rank, he enfeoffed lands throughout the mountains and rivers to establish defenses, placing families of other surnames alongside relatives as kings over their states, thereby securing Heaven's mandate for countless generations. Peace endured through successive ages, without troubles between ruler and ministers. At Shizu (Liu Xiu)'s restoration circumstances differed, and for several hundred years no kings of other surnames existed. I, lacking virtue, inherited this great enterprise amid the realm's fragmentation and the violence of wicked men. From west to east I endured hardship and humiliation, fearing only to fall into calamity and disgrace the former emperor's virtue. Through august Heaven's favor, you upheld righteousness and exerted yourself with astonishing martial force, protecting me in difficulty and preserving the ancestral temples. The surviving people of China, all living beings, benefited. Your labor exceeds Ji and Yu; your loyalty equals Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou (Ji Dan). Yet you conceal it with modesty and guard it with ever greater respect. When Wei was first established and land granted, I feared your refusal and constrained my intention, making you a high duke to respect your principles while awaiting further achievements. Han Sui and Song Jian allied southward with Ba and Shu; rebels joined to imperil the state. You again commanded generals, rising like dragons and tigers, exposing their leaders' heads and destroying their lairs. On your western campaign at Yangping, you personally wore armor and helmet, penetrated difficult terrain, cut down harmful rebels, and pacified the western border. Your banners flew far away, and your authority and instruction brought peace to our lands. At Tang and Yu's height, three ministers established achievements; at Wen and Wu's rise, Dan and Shi assisted; in the enterprises of our two ancestors, heroes supported the mandate. Even sage rulers who took affairs on themselves granted land and tokens to repay meritorious ministers. How could I, with little virtue and relying on you for deliverance, fail to reward richly and still answer the spirits and comfort the myriad regions? I now advance your rank to King of Wei (Cao Cao). Minister of the Imperial Clan Liu Ai, acting Imperial Counselor, shall carry credentials, the investiture document and seal, black soil for the altar wrapped in white cogon grass, gold tiger tallies numbered one to five, and bamboo envoy tallies numbered one to ten. Take your proper royal position, continuing as Chancellor and Governor of Ji Province. Return the Duke of Wei (Cao Cao)'s seal, cord, tallies, and investiture document. Obey reverently, care for your people, and secure all achievements, glorifying our ancestors' gracious mandate.' The King of Wei (Cao Cao) submitted three refusals; three edicts rejected them. An additional personal edict said, 'The greatest sages prized achievement and virtue and taught loyalty and harmony. Thus they founded enterprises and left names that later generations could aspire to, practicing the Way and establishing righteousness as examples. Their achievements were endless and their gracious glory manifest. Ji and Xie supported their ruler's wisdom; Zhou and Shao benefited from Wen and Wu's intelligence. Though they managed the offices and reflected deeply, how could their service compare with yours? Considering the admired deeds of the ancients and your flourishing loyalty and labor, whenever I prepare tokens and investiture documents, waking or sleeping I am moved and forget my own lack of virtue as a ruler preserving inherited institutions. Yet you again resist my command with earnest refusal. This neither satisfies my heart nor instructs posterity. Restrain your intentions and do not persist in refusal.' The Preface to the Forms of the Four Scripts says Liang Hu appointed the Duke (Cao Cao) Northern Section Commandant. The Biography of Cao Man says he was recommended by Sima Jiangong, Right Assistant to the Masters of Writing. When the Duke (Cao Cao) became king, he summoned Jiangong to Ye and drank happily with him, asking, 'Could I still be a commandant today?' Jiangong answered, 'When I recommended Your Majesty, you were just fit to be a commandant.' The King (Cao Cao) laughed heartily. Jiangong's personal name was Fang; he was the father of Emperor Xuan of Jin (Sima Yi) <a posthumous imperial title conferred under the Jin dynasty>. I, your servant Songzhi, note from Sima Biao's Autobiographical Account that Jiangong was not Right Assistant, and doubt this account. Yet Wang Yin's Book of Jin says that when the King of Zhao (Sima Lun) <a Jin princely title> usurped the throne and wished to honor his ancestor as emperor, Erudite Ma Ping argued that the former Lord of Jingzhao had recommended Emperor Wu of Wei (Cao Cao) as Northern Section Commandant, whereupon criminals ceased crossing his jurisdiction. Thus the recommendation has supporting evidence.

Pufulu, acting Chanyu of the Wuhuan in Dai Commandery, came to court with his subordinate kings and marquises. The Son of Heaven made the King (Cao Cao)'s daughters princesses, with bathing-estate revenues. In autumn, in the seventh month, Huchuquan, Southern Chanyu of the Xiongnu, came to court with his prominent kings. He was treated as a guest and retained in Wei, while the Worthy King of the Right, Qubei, supervised his state. In the eighth month, Chief Judge Zhong Yao became Chancellor of State.

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In winter, in the tenth month, the troops were reviewed.

He then campaigned against Sun Quan, reaching Qiao in the eleventh month.

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In spring of the twenty-second year, in the first month, the King (Cao Cao) camped at Juchao. In the second month he advanced to Hao Stream west of the river. Quan had built defenses at Ruxu Mouth. Pressing the attack, the King (Cao Cao) forced Quan to withdraw. In the third month, he brought the army back, leaving Xiahou Dun, Cao Ren, Zhang Liao, and others at Juchao.

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In summer, in the fourth month, the Son of Heaven authorized the King (Cao Cao) to use imperial banners and have warnings to clear the way proclaimed on his entry and departure. In the fifth month he built a ceremonial academy. In the sixth month, Military Adviser Hua Xin became Imperial Counselor.

CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: The office of Minister of the Guards was first established. In autumn, in the eighth month, he ordered, 'Yi Zhi and Fu Yue arose from humble men; Guan Zhong was Duke Huan (Jiang Xiaobai)'s enemy. All were employed to bring prosperity. Xiao He and Cao Can were county officers; Han Xin and Chen Ping bore shameful reputations and endured ridicule, yet ultimately established kingship and became famous for a thousand years. Wu Qi was a greedy general: he killed his wife to prove loyalty, distributed gold to seek office, and did not return when his mother died. Yet while he served Wei, Qin dared not face east; while he served Chu, the Three Jin dared not plot southward. Are there not today men of the highest virtue living among the common people, bold and fearless men who fight hard before the enemy, or officers versed in civil affairs, with exceptional talent suited to command armies or commanderies? Some may bear shameful reputations or ridiculous conduct, or lack benevolence and filial piety, yet possess the arts of governing states and using troops. Recommend all whom you know, overlooking none.'

In winter, in the tenth month, the Son of Heaven authorized the King (Cao Cao) to wear a crown with twelve pendant strings, ride the Gold-root Carriage drawn by six horses, and use auxiliary carriages for the five seasons. Pi, General of the Gentlemen of the Household for the Five Offices, became Crown Prince of Wei.

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Liu Bei sent Zhang Fei, Ma Chao, Wu Lan, and others to Xiabian. Cao Hong was sent to resist them.

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In spring of the twenty-third year, in the first month, Han's Director of Imperial Physicians Ji Ben rebelled with Minister Steward Geng Ji, Director of Rectitude Wei Huang, and others. They attacked Xu and burned the camp of Wang Bi, the Chancellor's Chief Clerk.

Bi and Yan Kuang, General of the Gentlemen of the Household for Agriculture in Yingchuan, suppressed and beheaded them.

CommentaryThe Commentary on Selected Records of the Three Adjuncts says: Jin Yi of Jingzhao, courtesy name Deyi, considered that his family had served Han for generations. Since Midi had punished Mang Heluo, their loyalty and honor had been evident through successive generations. Seeing Han's mandate about to pass away, he thought it might yet be restored. Stirred to indignation, he conspired with Geng Ji, Wei Huang, Ji Ben, Ben's son Miao, and Miao's younger brother Mu. Ji, courtesy name Jixing, had a fine reputation when young. As an officer of the Chancellor, he was especially respected by the King (Cao Cao) and promoted to Palace Attendant and acting Minister Steward. Miao's courtesy name was Wenran and Mu's Siran. Believing Yi had Midi's spirited character and knowing his friendship with Wang Bi, they used him as an intermediary. If they killed Bi, they intended to hold the Son of Heaven to attack Wei and seek Liu Bei's aid in the south. Guan Yu was powerful, and the King (Cao Cao) was in Ye, leaving Bi to command troops and oversee Xu. Wenran and the others led more than a thousand assorted followers and household servants at night to burn the gate and attack Bi. Yi sent men to act within. Bi was shot in the shoulder. Not knowing who attacked and being Yi's old friend, he fled to him, calling 'Deyi!' in the night. Yi's household mistook him for Wenran's men and answered, 'Is Chief Clerk Wang dead? Your undertaking has succeeded!' Bi then fled by another route. Another account says: As Bi intended to seek Yi, his subordinate commander asked, 'Do you know whose gate you are entering amid today's events?' He helped Bi escape to the southern city. At dawn Bi was still alive; Wenran's followers dispersed, and the plot failed. More than ten days later, Bi died of his wound. The Spring and Autumn Annals of Emperor Xian (Liu Xie) says: Ji, Huang, and the others were arrested. As they were about to be beheaded, Ji called out the King of Wei (Cao Cao)'s personal name, saying, 'I regret that I did not devise the plan myself, but was misled by these children!' Huang bowed his head and struck his cheeks until death. The Recorded Affairs of the Duke of Shanyang says: Hearing of Bi's death, the King (Cao Cao) was furious and summoned Han's officials to Ye, ordering those who had fought the fire to stand left and those who had not to stand right. Believing firefighting would prove innocence, all went left. The King (Cao Cao) said, 'Those who did not fight the fire did not assist the rebels; those who fought it were the actual rebels.' He killed them all.

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Cao Hong defeated Wu Lan and beheaded his general Ren Kui and others. In the third month, Zhang Fei and Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong. Qiang Duan, a Di leader of Yinping, beheaded Wu Lan and sent his head.

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In summer, in the fourth month, Wuchendi and other Wuhuan of Dai and Shanggu commanderies rebelled. the Marquis of Yanling (Cao Zhang), was sent to defeat them.

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In the sixth month he ordered, 'Ancient burials were always in barren ground. Lay out my tomb on the western plateau west of Ximen Bao's shrine, using the elevation as its foundation, without a raised mound or planted trees. In the Rites of Zhou, the Superintendent of Tombs manages the public cemetery: the lords lie to the left and right toward the front, and ministers and great officers behind. Han likewise calls these accompanying tombs. High ministers, great officers, and generals with merit should accompany my tomb. Make the burial grounds broad enough to contain them.'

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In autumn, in the seventh month, he reviewed the troops and campaigned west against Liu Bei, reaching Chang'an in the ninth month.

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In winter, in the tenth month, Wan's defending general Hou Yin and others rebelled, seized the Administrator of Nanyang, plundered officials and commoners, and held Wan. Cao Ren had earlier been stationed at Fan to attack Guan Yu. That month he was ordered to besiege Wan.

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In spring of the twenty-fourth year, in the first month, Ren sacked Wan and beheaded Yin.

CommentaryThe Biography of Cao Man says: Nanyang then suffered under labor service. Yin seized Administrator Dongli Bao (a variant gives Dongli Gun), rebelled with officials and commoners, and allied with Guan Yu. Officer of Merit Zong Ziqing of Nanyang went to persuade Yin: 'You have followed the people's wishes and undertaken a great cause. Far and near all look to you. But holding the commandery's governor is rebellious and useless. Why not release him? I will join you in exerting every effort. By the time Lord Cao (Cao Cao)'s army arrives, Guan Yu's troops will also be here.' Yin agreed and released the administrator. Ziqing then escaped over the wall at night and joined the administrator in gathering the remaining people to surround Yin. Cao Ren's army arrived, and together they destroyed him.

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Xiahou Yuan fought Liu Bei at Yangping and was killed by him. In the third month, the King (Cao Cao) left Chang'an through the Xie Valley, camped at Zheyao overlooking Hanzhong, and reached Yangping. Bei defended the difficult terrain.

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In summer, in the fifth month, he withdrew to Chang'an.

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In autumn, in the seventh month, Lady Bian was made queen. Yu Jin was sent to assist Cao Ren against Guan Yu. In the eighth month, the Han River overflowed and flooded Jin's army. The army was submerged; Yu captured Jin and then besieged Ren. Xu Huang was sent to relieve him.

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In the ninth month, Chancellor of State Zhong Yao was dismissed because Wei Feng, an officer of the Western Section, had rebelled.

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In winter, in the tenth month, the army returned to Luoyang.

Sun Quan sent an envoy with a memorial offering to prove his service by attacking Guan Yu. The King (Cao Cao) marched south from Luoyang against Yu. Before he arrived, Huang attacked and defeated Yu, who fled, lifting Ren's siege. The King (Cao Cao) camped at Mobei.

CommentaryA Brief History of Wei says: Sun Quan's memorial styled himself a subject and spoke of Heaven's mandate. Showing the letter to his officers, the King (Cao Cao) said, 'Does this fellow wish to put me atop a furnace?' Palace Attendant Chen Qun and Master of Writing Huan Jie memorialized, 'Since Emperor An (Liu Hu) <Emperor An of the Eastern Han>, government has departed from the Han house, and the dynastic succession has repeatedly been broken. Now only its name remains; not an inch of land or a single person belongs to Han. Its allotted time and mandate ended long ago, not merely today. Thus during Huan and Ling's reigns, experts in prophetic diagrams all said, "Han's vital phase is exhausted; the Yellow House must arise." Your Highness answers the destined time and holds nine-tenths of the realm while continuing to serve Han. All living people look to you, and far and near lament. Thus Sun Quan submits from afar: Heaven and humanity respond, different voices agreeing. We believe Yu and Xia did not decline out of modesty, nor Yin and Zhou shrink from execution and banishment. Revering Heaven and knowing the mandate leaves no room to yield it.' The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Wei House says: Xiahou Dun told the King (Cao Cao), 'All know Han's allotted rule is exhausted and another dynasty is arising. Since antiquity, whoever removed the people's sufferings and gained their allegiance became their ruler. Your Highness has campaigned for more than thirty years, with merit and virtue manifest among the people, and all the realm relies on you. Why hesitate to answer Heaven and follow the people?' The King (Cao Cao) said, '"To extend virtue to government is also to govern." If Heaven's mandate rests with me, I shall be King Wen of Zhou (Ji Chang) <Civil King; father of the Zhou founding king>.' The Biography of Cao Man and Accounts of the Age both say Huan Jie urged the King (Cao Cao) to take the throne, while Xiahou Dun advised first destroying Shu: once Shu fell, Wu would submit; with both settled, he could follow Shun and Yu's precedent. The King (Cao Cao) agreed. After the King (Cao Cao)'s death, Dun regretted his former advice, fell ill, and died. Sun Sheng comments: Xiahou Dun was ashamed to hold Han office and requested a Wei seal, whereas Huan Jie, compared with Dun, showed a measure of righteousness and uprightness. Judging their biographies, Accounts of the Age is false.

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In spring of the twenty-fifth year, in the first month, he reached Luoyang. Quan attacked and beheaded Yu and sent his head.

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On the gengzi day, the King (Cao Cao) died at Luoyang, aged sixty-six.

His final order said, 'The realm is not yet settled, and we cannot follow ancient practice. Once the burial is finished, all shall remove mourning dress. Those commanding garrison troops must not leave their posts. Officials shall each perform their duties. Dress my body in the clothing of the season, and place no gold, jade, or treasures in the tomb.' His posthumous title was King Wu (Cao Cao) <Martial King; Cao Cao’s posthumous royal title>. In the second month, on the dingmao day, he was buried at Gaoling.

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CommentaryThe Book of Wei says: In governing the realm and eliminating wicked forces, Taizu (Cao Cao) generally followed Sun Wu and Wu Qi's methods in military operations, but devised unexpected measures for each situation, deceiving enemies and winning with seemingly divine adaptability. He wrote military works of more than a hundred thousand words, and all generals followed these new writings on campaign. He also personally issued instructions for particular situations: those obeying won, and those disregarding them lost. Facing enemy formations, he was calm and composed, as though unwilling to fight; when the decisive opportunity came, his energy overflowed. Thus his victories were not fortunate accidents. He understood and scrutinized men and was difficult to deceive. He raised Yu Jin and Yue Jin from the ranks and recruited Zhang Liao and Xu Huang from surrendered enemies. All aided his enterprise and became famous generals. Countless others of humble status were advanced to governors and administrators. Thus he founded his great enterprise through both civil and military means. In more than thirty years commanding armies, he never put books aside. By day he discussed strategy; by night he reflected on classics and commentaries. Ascending a height, he invariably composed verse. His new poems were set to pipes and strings as musical pieces. His talent and strength surpassed others: he personally shot flying birds and captured fierce beasts. At Nanpi he once shot sixty-three pheasants in a day. In building palaces and repairing equipment, he provided designs and fully expressed his intentions. Frugal by nature, he disliked extravagance. The palace women wore no embroidered brocade; attendants' shoes had no contrasting colors. Curtains and screens were patched when worn, and bedding provided warmth without decorative borders. Fine goods captured in cities were all given to men with merit. Where service deserved reward, he did not begrudge a thousand jin of gold; to those seeking gifts without merit, he gave not the smallest fraction. Offerings from all directions were shared with his subordinates. He always considered elaborate funeral arrangements and numerous layers of burial clothing uselessly excessive, and common customs exceeded even these. He therefore prepared his own burial garments beforehand, only four chests in all.

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CommentaryThe Biography of Cao Man says: Taizu (Cao Cao) was frivolous and casual, without solemn dignity. He loved music and kept performers beside him, often from morning to night. He wore light silk and personally carried a small belt pouch containing a handkerchief and small objects. Sometimes he received guests wearing a qia cap. In conversation he joked and recited without reserve. When delighted he laughed so hard that his head dipped among the cups and trays, food soiling his headcloth and cap. Such was his informality. Yet his application of law was severe. Generals whose plans surpassed his own were afterward executed on legal grounds, and none of his old acquaintances against whom he bore a grievance escaped. Whenever he executed someone, he wept and sighed over him, but never spared him. Earlier, Yuan Zhong, Chancellor of Pei, had wished to prosecute Taizu (Cao Cao), and Huan Shao of Pei had despised him. While Taizu (Cao Cao) was in Yan Province, Bian Rang of Chenliu spoke offensively of him. Taizu (Cao Cao) killed Rang and exterminated his family. Zhong and Shao fled to Jiao Province. Taizu (Cao Cao) sent an envoy to Administrator Shi Xie to exterminate their clans. Huan Shao came out to confess and bowed in apology in the courtyard. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'Can kneeling save you from death?' and killed him. Once on campaign, passing through wheat fields, he ordered, 'Soldiers must not damage the wheat. Offenders die.' Cavalrymen dismounted and carefully guided one another through the wheat. Taizu (Cao Cao)'s horse suddenly leaped into it. He ordered his registrar to assess his offense. Citing the Spring and Autumn principles, the registrar replied that punishment did not apply to the exalted. Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'If I establish a law and break it myself, how can I lead others? Yet as commander I cannot kill myself. Let me punish myself.' He drew his sword, cut off his hair, and placed it on the ground. A favored concubine once accompanied his midday sleep. Resting on her, he told her, 'Wake me shortly.' Seeing him sleeping peacefully, she did not immediately wake him. When he awoke himself, he had her beaten to death. On another campaign, grain rations were insufficient. He privately asked the officer in charge what to do. The officer said, 'We can make it suffice by using a smaller measure.' Taizu (Cao Cao) said, 'Good.' Later the army complained that Taizu (Cao Cao) was deceiving them. He told the officer, 'I must borrow your death to satisfy the troops; otherwise the matter cannot be resolved.' He beheaded him and displayed his head with the notice, 'He used a small measure and stole public grain; executed at the army gate.' His cruelty and deceit were all of this kind.

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Assessment: At the end of Han, the realm fell into great disorder and powerful men rose together. Yuan Shao watched like a tiger over four provinces, his strength unmatched. Taizu (Cao Cao) developed plans and strategies and brought the realm under control, drawing on Shen Buhai and Shang Yang's legal methods and encompassing the extraordinary strategies of Han Xin and Bai Qi. He assigned offices according to talent, employing each man according to his capacity; he restrained his feelings, relied on calculation, and did not dwell on former wrongs. That he ultimately directed the imperial enterprise and accomplished this great undertaking was owing above all to his exceptional discernment and strategy. He may indeed be called an extraordinary man, a hero surpassing his age.