Book of Wei · Accounts of the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Eastern Peoples

The Documents records “the Man and Yi disturbing Xia,” and the Odes says “the Xianyun are fiercely powerful.” Their troubling the central states has a long history. Since Qin and Han, the Xiongnu had long harmed the frontier. Emperor Xiaowu of Han (Liu Che) <Filial Martial Emperor; a posthumous imperial title> conducted affairs among peoples in all directions, pacifying the Two Yue and Joseon in the east, attacking Ershi and Dayuan in the west, and opening roads to Qiongzuo and Yelang. Yet these lay beyond the outermost domain and could not decisively affect the central state. The Xiongnu pressed closest to the Chinese regions. When their cavalry invaded southward, three frontiers faced enemies. Thus commanders like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing repeatedly went deep on northern campaigns, pursued the chanyu <the Xiongnu supreme ruler's title>, and seized fertile territory. Later the Xiongnu guarded the frontier, called themselves vassals, and weakened through generations. During Jian'an, Southern Chanyu Huchuquan attended court and was retained in attendance, with the Right Worthy King sent to govern his people. The Xiongnu's submission exceeded earlier Han practice. Yet the Wuhuan and Xianbei gradually grew stronger. With Han's final disorder occupying the central state and leaving no leisure for external campaigns, they monopolized

lands south of the desert, raiding cities, killing and capturing people, and repeatedly afflicting the northern frontier. Yuan Shao, controlling the region north of the Yellow River, embraced the Wuhuan of three commanderies, favored their prominent kings, and gathered picked cavalry. Later Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to Tadun. Brave and martial, Tadun was compared by frontier elders to Modu. Relying on distance and defenses, he sheltered fugitives and dominated the many foreign groups. Taizu (Cao Cao) <Great Ancestor; a posthumous temple name> secretly campaigned north, surprised him, and settled the matter in one battle. Foreign peoples were overawed, and authority shook the north. Wuhuan forces were then drawn into his campaigns, allowing frontier people to rest. Later Xianbei leader Kebineng controlled the northern peoples and occupied all former Xiongnu land. From Yunzhong and Wuyuan east to the Liao River, everything became Xianbei territory. Repeated frontier incursions afflicted You and Bing Provinces. Tian Yu was surrounded at Macheng, and Bi Gui defeated north of Xing Pass. During Qinglong, Emperor Ming (Cao Rui) <the Wei emperor's posthumous title> accepted Wang Xiong's proposal to send a swordsman to assassinate Kebineng. Thereafter groups scattered and attacked one another, the strong fleeing far away and the weak requesting submission. The frontier became comparatively peaceful,

and affairs south of the desert diminished. Though raids still occurred, they could no longer stir one another to concerted action. The Wuhuan and Xianbei are those anciently called the Eastern Hu. Their customs and earlier affairs were already recorded by compilers of the Annals of Han. Thus only events from late Han and early Wei onward are presented to complete the account of changes among the peoples of the four directions.

Late in Han, Wuhuan leader Qiuliju of Liaoxi had more than five thousand settlements; Nanlou of Shanggu had more than nine thousand. Both called themselves kings. Wuhuan leader Supuyan of Liaodong's dependent state had over a thousand settlements and called himself King Qiao (Supuyan) <a self-assumed royal title>; Wuhuan leader Wuyan of Youbeiping had over eight hundred and called himself King Hanlu (Wuyan) <a self-assumed royal title>. All possessed strategy, courage, and strength. Administrator of Zhongshan Zhang Chun rebelled and joined Qiuliju, calling himself King Who Encompasses Heaven and Secures Peace, and became supreme commander of the three commanderies' Wuhuan. He raided Qing, Xu, You, and Ji Provinces, killing and capturing officials and people. Late under Emperor Ling (Liu Hong) <Numinous Emperor; a posthumous imperial title>, Liu Yu became provincial governor, recruited foreign men to behead Zhang Chun, and settled the north. After Qiuliju died, his son Louban was young. His nephew Tadun, skilled in war, replaced him and directed the three kings' groups, all obeying him. Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan fought repeatedly without decision. Tadun sought peace and alliance with Yuan Shao and helped defeat Gongsun Zan. Yuan Shao forged imperial authority to grant seals and ribbons to Tadun,

King Qiao (Supuyan), and King Hanlu (Wuyan), making all chanyus.

When Louban grew up, King Qiao (Supuyan) led his people in recognizing him as chanyu, while Tadun became a king. Tadun nevertheless devised most of their plans. Yan Rou of Guangyang had been captured among the Wuhuan and Xianbei as a boy and had won their trust. Using Xianbei forces, he killed Xing Ju, Colonel of the Wuhuan, and took his place. Yuan Shao favored and reassured him to secure the northern frontier. After his defeat, Yuan Shang fled to Tadun, relying on his strength to attempt the recovery of Ji Province. When Taizu (Cao Cao) pacified the lands north of the Yellow River, Yan Rou led the Xianbei and Wuhuan in submitting. Taizu (Cao Cao) accordingly retained him as colonel; he still held the Han envoy's staff and governed at Guangning as before. In Jian'an 11, Taizu (Cao Cao) personally campaigned against Tadun at Liucheng. His army advanced secretly by an unexpected route, and the enemy did not discover it until it was little more than a hundred li away. Yuan Shang and Tadun brought a very large force of cavalry and infantry to meet him at Fancheng. Taizu (Cao Cao) climbed high ground to observe their formation. His army had not yet advanced; observing a slight movement, he attacked and routed them, cutting off Tadun's head in battle. The dead covered the countryside. <The source here contains the parenthetical character 柳, liu; its connection with the sentence is unclear. Fancheng follows the place-name 凡城 printed in this text.> Sufuwan, Louban, Wuyan, and the others fled to Liaodong, whose authorities executed them all and sent on their heads. All the scattered survivors surrendered. More than ten thousand Wuhuan settlements in You and Bing provinces under Yan Rou's command were moved with their clans into the central lands. Their marquises, kings, and chieftains led their people on subsequent campaigns. Thus the Wuhuan of the three commanderies became celebrated cavalry throughout the realm.

Xianbei

After Budugen succeeded, his following gradually weakened. His middle elder brother Fuluohan also commanded a separate force numbering tens of thousands and acted as a chieftain. During Jian'an, after Taizu (Cao Cao) settled You Province, Budugen, Kebineng, and others presented tribute through Yan Rou, Colonel of the Wuhuan. Later Nengchendi and other Wuhuan of Dai Commandery rebelled and asked to join Fuluohan, who brought more than ten thousand cavalry to receive them. Reaching Sanggan, Nengchendi and the others discussed the matter. They thought Fuluohan's command and discipline too lax and feared he could not help them, so they sent someone to summon Kebineng instead. Kebineng immediately arrived with more than ten thousand cavalry, ostensibly to swear an alliance together, but killed Fuluohan at the meeting. Fuluohan's son Xieguini and all his followers became subject to Kebineng. Conscious that he had killed Xieguini's father, Kebineng treated him especially well. Budugen consequently resented Kebineng.

When Emperor Wen (Cao Pi) <the Wei emperor's posthumous title> ascended the throne, Tian Yu became Colonel of the Wuhuan, bearing an imperial staff and also supervising the Xianbei, with his station at Changping. Budugen sent envoys to present horses, and the emperor appointed him king. Later he and Kebineng repeatedly attacked one another. As Budugen's following dwindled and weakened, he took more than ten thousand settlements into Taiyuan and Yanmen commanderies for protection. He sent someone to summon Xieguini, saying: 'Kebineng killed your father. Instead of thinking of vengeance, you serve your enemy. Though he treats you well now, he is plotting to kill you. Better return to me. We are close blood relatives: how can I be compared with your enemy?' Xieguini accordingly fled with his settlements to Budugen; Kebineng pursued but could not catch him. In Huangchu 5, Budugen came to court with tribute and received generous rewards. Thereafter he devoted himself to guarding the frontier without raiding or doing harm, while Kebineng's forces grew powerful. After Emperor Ming (Cao Rui) ascended the throne, he sought to pacify the Rong and Di and end military expeditions, maintaining only loose control over the two groups. In Qinglong 1, Kebineng enticed Budugen into a close alliance. Budugen then took Xieguini and all his followers to Kebineng, raiding Bing Province and killing or carrying off officials and civilians. The emperor sent Qin Lang, General of Valiant Cavalry, against them. Xieguini deserted Kebineng and surrendered with his followers. He was appointed King Who Returns to Righteousness, granted standards, command flags, a curved canopy, and drum-and-pipe music, and continued living in Bing Province. Kebineng killed Budugen.

Kebineng originally belonged to a small Xianbei group. Because he was brave and strong, administered laws impartially, and was not greedy for property, the people chose him as chieftain. His settlements were near the frontier. Since Yuan Shao occupied the lands north of the Yellow River, many people from the central lands had fled or defected to him. They taught his people to make weapons, armor, and shields, and his people also learned something of writing. He therefore modeled the organization and control of his followers on the central lands, setting up banners when they went out hunting and using drumbeats to regulate advance and retreat. During Jian'an he presented tribute through Yan Rou. When Taizu (Cao Cao) campaigned west in Guanzhong, Tian Yin rebelled in Hejian. Kebineng brought more than three thousand cavalry to help Yan Rou defeat him. Later, when the Wuhuan of Dai Commandery rebelled, Kebineng again helped them raid. Taizu (Cao Cao) appointed the Marquis of Yanling (Cao Zhang) <a territorial marquisate> General of Valiant Cavalry and sent him north, where he decisively defeated them. Kebineng fled beyond the frontier but subsequently resumed sending tribute. Early in Yankang, he sent envoys with horses, and Emperor Wen (Cao Pi) also established him as King Who Attaches Himself to Righteousness. In Huangchu 2, he released more than five hundred Wei households living among the Xianbei and returned them to Dai Commandery. The following year, he led more than three thousand cavalry, including settlement chiefs, their younger sons, and Xiuwulu and other Wuhuan of Dai Commandery, driving more than seventy thousand cattle and horses to trade at the markets. He also sent more than a thousand Wei households to live in Shanggu. Later his group, that of Suli, an eastern Xianbei chieftain, and that of Budugen fought and attacked one another. Tian Yu reconciled them and prohibited mutual encroachments. In Huangchu 5, Kebineng again attacked Suli. Tian Yu advanced directly with light cavalry to threaten his rear. Kebineng sent a subordinate commander, Suonu, to resist him, but Tian Yu advanced, defeated him, and put him to flight. Kebineng consequently became disaffected and wrote to Xianyu Fu, General Who Supports the State: 'We peoples beyond the frontier do not understand writing, so Colonel Yan Rou vouched for me to the Son of Heaven. Suli and I are enemies. When I attacked him last year, Colonel Tian helped Suli. I sent Suonu forward in battle, but when I heard that Your Excellency was coming, I immediately withdrew my army. Budugen has repeatedly plundered and also killed my younger brother, yet falsely accuses me of plundering. Although we peoples beyond the frontier do not understand rites and righteousness, my brothers, sons, and grandsons have received the Son of Heaven's seals and ribbons. Even cattle and horses recognize good water and grass; how much more should I, with a human heart! General, you should vouch for me and make my position clear to the Son of Heaven.' Xianyu Fu received the letter and reported it to the emperor, who again instructed Tian Yu to win Kebineng over and reassure him. Kebineng's following became powerful, numbering more than a hundred thousand mounted archers. Whenever raids brought property, he distributed it evenly and fairly, settling everything immediately before their eyes without keeping anything for himself. Thus his followers exerted themselves to the death for him, and the chieftains of the other groups all respected and feared him. Even so, he had still not equaled Tanshihuai.

In Taihe 2, Tian Yu sent the interpreter Xia She to the group of Kebineng's son-in-law Yuzhujian, who killed him. That autumn Tian Yu led Putou and Xieguini of the western Xianbei beyond the frontier against Yuzhujian and decisively defeated him. On his return to Macheng, Kebineng personally besieged him with thirty thousand cavalry for seven days. Yan Zhi, Grand Administrator of Shanggu and Yan Rou's younger brother, had long been trusted by the Xianbei. He went to explain matters and persuade them, and they immediately lifted the siege and departed. Later Wang Xiong, Inspector of You Province, concurrently held the colonelcy and treated them with kindness and good faith. Kebineng repeatedly came to the frontier and visited the provincial administration to present tribute. In Qinglong 1, he enticed and received Budugen, inducing him to rebel against Bing Province and concluding an alliance with him. He personally marshaled ten thousand cavalry to receive Budugen's dependents and baggage north of the mountain pass. Bi Gui, Inspector of Bing Province, sent Generals Su Shang, Dong Bi, and others against them. Kebineng sent his son with cavalry to meet them in battle at Loufan, killing Su Shang and Dong Bi on the field. During Qinglong 3, Wang Xiong sent the warrior Han Long to assassinate Kebineng and established his younger brother in his place.

Suli, Mijia, and Jueji were all chieftains beyond the frontiers of Liaoxi, Youbeiping, and Yuyang. Because the routes were long, they had initially caused no frontier trouble, though their peoples were more numerous than Kebineng's. During Jian'an, they presented tribute through Yan Rou and traded in the markets. Taizu (Cao Cao) submitted memorials honoring them all with royal titles. When Jueji died, his son Shamohan was established as King Who Cherishes Han. Early in Yankang, they each again sent envoys with horses. Emperor Wen (Cao Pi) appointed Suli and Mijia Kings Who Return to Righteousness. Suli and Kebineng attacked one another. In Taihe 2, Suli died. Since his son was young, his younger brother Chenglügui was made king to administer his people on his behalf.

The Documents says: 'Eastward reaching the sea, westward extending to the flowing sands.' Its system of nine zones of service can be described. Yet beyond the remote outer regions, where visitors arrived through successive interpreters and neither travelers' footprints nor carriage tracks reached, no one had known the countries' customs and distinctive ways. From the time of Yu down to Zhou, the Western Rong presented white jade rings and the Eastern Yi brought tribute from Sushen. Such arrivals were separated by generations: so distant were those lands. When Han sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions, he explored the sources of the Yellow River and traveled through the various countries. A Protector General was eventually established to supervise them. Only then were comprehensive records of the Western Regions available for historians to describe in detail. After Wei arose, although not all the Western Regions could come, the great states—Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Shule, the Yuezhi, Shanshan, Jushi, and others—presented court tribute every year, broadly following Han precedents. Gongsun Yuan, however, held Liaodong for a third generation after his father and grandfather. Because of its remoteness, the Son of Heaven entrusted him with affairs beyond the sea. He consequently cut off the Eastern Yi from communication with the central states. During Jingchu, a great army was mobilized to execute him. Another force secretly crossed the sea to recover Lelang and Daifang commanderies. Thereafter the lands beyond the sea became peaceful and the Eastern Yi submitted. When Goguryeo subsequently rebelled, a detached force was sent to punish it, pursuing it into the farthest distances, beyond Wuhuan and Gudu, past Okjeo, into the territory of Sushen, and eastward to the great sea. Elders spoke of people with unusual faces close to where the sun rises. The expedition thus surveyed the various countries and collected accounts of their laws and customs, distinguishing them by size and recording their particular names, so that detailed accounts could be made. Though these were lands of the Yi and Di, forms of sacrificial vessels and ceremonial observance survived there. The saying, 'When the central states lose the rites, seek them among the peoples of the four quarters,' still proved true. I have therefore arranged accounts of these countries and set out their similarities and differences to supplement what earlier histories lacked.

Buyeo lies north of the Great Wall, a thousand li from Xuantu. It borders Goguryeo to the south, the Yilou to the east, and the Xianbei to the west; to its north is the Weak Water. Its territory is roughly two thousand li square, with eighty thousand households. Its people are settled, with palaces, houses, storehouses, and prisons. There are many hills and broad marshes, and of the Eastern Yi lands it is the most level and open. The soil suits the five grains but does not produce the five fruits. The people are large in build, strong and brave, cautious and sincere, and do not raid. The country has a king, and its officials are named after domestic animals: Maga, Uga, Jeoga, and Guga—Horse Ka, Ox Ka, Pig Ka, and Dog Ka—as well as Dashi, Dashizhe, and Shizhe <official titles, respectively written 大使, 大使者, and 使者>. The settlements have powerful families; those called lower households are all their servants or slaves. The various ka separately govern the four outward routes: the larger commands contain several thousand households, the smaller several hundred. In eating and drinking they use ritual stands and vessels. At gatherings they ceremonially receive and wash cups, bow and yield precedence when ascending or descending. In the first month according to the Yin calendar they sacrifice to Heaven. The whole country gathers and feasts, sings, and dances for successive days. This is called Yeonggo. At this time criminal cases are settled and prisoners released. At home they favor white clothing: broad-sleeved white cloth garments, robes and trousers, with leather footwear. When traveling abroad they favor patterned silks, embroidery, brocade, and woolen cloth. Great men add furs of fox, white you, or black diao and decorate their caps with gold and silver. <You and diao retain the source's animal names; exact species are not determined here.> When interpreters convey messages, they kneel with their hands against the ground and speak quietly. Punishments are severe and swift. Murderers are executed and their families enslaved. Theft is punished by restitution twelvefold. Men and women who commit illicit sexual relations, and wives who are jealous, are all killed. Jealousy is especially hated: after the woman is killed, her corpse is exposed on a mountain south of the country until it rots. If her family wants it, they must pay cattle or horses before receiving it. When an elder brother dies, the younger marries his widow, as among the Xiongnu. The country excels at raising livestock and produces famous horses, red jade, diao and you pelts, and fine pearls, the largest as big as sour jujubes. Bows, arrows, swords, and spears are their weapons; every household has armor and arms. The elders say that their ancestors were fugitives. Their fortified stockades are round, resembling prisons. Traveling on the roads, young and old alike sing day and night, their voices continuing throughout the day. They also sacrifice to Heaven in military affairs, killing cattle and examining the hooves to divine fortune: split hooves are inauspicious, joined hooves auspicious. When an enemy comes, the ka themselves fight while the lower households carry provisions and supply their food and drink. In summer they use ice for the dead. People are killed to accompany burials, sometimes by the hundred. Funerals are lavish; they have outer burial cases but no inner coffins.

Buyeo originally belonged to Xuantu. Late in Han, Gongsun Du asserted his strength east of the sea and overawed the foreign peoples. King Weichoutai of Buyeo then came under Liaodong instead. Goguryeo and the Xianbei were powerful at the time; because Buyeo lay between these two peoples, Gongsun Du married a woman of his clan to its king. Weichoutai died and Jian Weiju succeeded. He had no legitimate son, but had a son by a secondary consort, Mayu. When Jian Weiju died, the ka jointly established Mayu. A nephew of the Uga, named Weiju, served as Dashi. He valued wealth lightly and was generous, winning the country's allegiance. Each year he sent envoys to the capital with tribute. During Zhengshi, Guanqiu Jian, Inspector of You Province, attacked Goguryeo and sent Wang Qi, Grand Administrator of Xuantu, to Buyeo. Weiju sent a great ka to welcome him outside the capital and supplied military provisions. His youngest paternal uncle, the Uga, was disloyal. Weiju killed this uncle and his son, confiscated their property, and sent envoys to inventory, collect, and deliver it to the authorities. Under Buyeo's old customs, whenever floods or droughts disrupted the seasons and the five grains failed to ripen, blame fell on the king: some said he should be replaced, others that he should be killed. When Mayu died, his six-year-old son Yilü was established as king. In Han times, kings of Buyeo were buried in jade burial cases, which were regularly supplied in advance to Xuantu Commandery. When a king died, one was fetched for the burial. After Gongsun Yuan's execution, a jade case still remained in Xuantu's storehouse. Buyeo's treasury now contains jade discs, tablets, and libation ladles from several generations, treasured as hereditary possessions. The elders say these were gifts bestowed by earlier dynasties.

The inscription on its seal reads 'Seal of the King of Ye.' Within the country is an old city called Ye City. Presumably this was originally Yemaek territory, in which the kings of Buyeo came to rule. Their own claim to be 'fugitives' may therefore have a basis. <The source includes the parenthetical character 似, 'resemble,' at the end of this sentence; its precise textual function is uncertain.>

Goguryeo is a thousand li east of Liaodong. It borders Joseon and the Yemaek to the south, Okjeo to the east, and Buyeo to the north. Its capital lies below Wandu. Its territory is roughly two thousand li square and contains thirty thousand households. There are many high mountains and deep valleys, but no broad plains or marshes. People live along the mountains and valleys and drink water from streams. There are no good fields: even diligent cultivation cannot provide enough to fill their stomachs. Their customs favor restrained eating and fine houses. Large buildings are erected beside their dwellings for sacrifices to spirits; they also worship the Lingxing star and the gods of soil and grain. The account describes the people as fierce and impatient and adept at raiding. Their country has a king. Its officials include Xiangjia, Duilu, Peizhe, Guchujia, Zhubu, Youtaicheng, Shizhe, and Zaoyi Xianren <titles written 相加, 對盧, 沛者, 古雛加, 主簿, 優台丞, 使者, and 皁衣先人>, each with a distinct rank. Old accounts of the Eastern Yi regard them as a branch of Buyeo. Their language and many other things resemble Buyeo's, but their temperament and clothing differ. Originally there were five tribes: Juannu, Juenu, Shunnu, Guannu, and Guilou. Kings originally came from the Juannu, which gradually weakened; the Guilou have now replaced it. In Han times they were granted musicians skilled in drums and pipes. They regularly received court robes, clothing, and headdresses from Xuantu Commandery, with the Magistrate of Goguryeo supervising their register. Later they gradually grew proud and unruly and stopped visiting the commandery. A small city was built on the eastern boundary, with court robes and headdresses stored there for them to collect at the appointed seasons. The local people still call it Zegoulou. Goulou is the Goguryeo word for a city. In appointing officials, if they have a Duilu they do not appoint a Peizhe; if they have a Peizhe they do not appoint a Duilu. The great ka of the king's clan are all called Guchujia. Since the Juannu were originally rulers of the country, even though they no longer supply kings, the senior chief in the legitimate line may bear the title Guchujia and establish ancestral temples and sacrifices to the Lingxing star and the gods of soil and grain. The Juenu have married into the royal house for generations and receive the title Guchu. The great ka also appoint their own Shizhe and Zaoyi Xianren, reporting all their names to the king. Like household retainers of high ministers, they cannot sit or stand in the same ranks as the royal Shizhe and Zaoyi Xianren at assemblies. The great households do no farming; more than ten thousand people are supported without cultivating. Lower households carry grain, fish, and salt from afar to supply them. The people enjoy singing and dancing. In the settlements, men and women gather in groups at night to sing and entertain one another. They have no large granaries; each household has its own small storehouse, called a fujing. They take pride in cleanliness and like storing brewed drink. When kneeling in homage they extend one leg, unlike the people of Buyeo; when walking they all hurry at a run. In the tenth month they sacrifice to Heaven at a national gathering called Dongmeng. At public assemblies their clothing is decorated with brocade, embroidery, gold, and silver. Great ka and Zhubu wear headdresses resembling the Chinese ze but without its projecting parts; lesser ka wear zhefeng caps, shaped like the ceremonial bian. East of the country is a great cave called Sui Cave. At the national gathering in the tenth month they welcome the Sui spirit back to a place in the east of the country and sacrifice, placing a wooden representation of Sui on the spirit's seat. They have no prisons. When someone commits an offense, the ka deliberate and execute him, confiscating his wife and children as slaves. In marriage, once the agreement has been made, the woman's family builds a small house behind its large house, called the son-in-law's house. In the evening the groom comes outside their door, gives his name, kneels, and asks to sleep with their daughter. After this happens two or three times, her parents permit him to sleep in the small house, with money and silk placed beside it. Only after children have been born and grown up does he take his wife back to his own home. The account calls their sexual customs licentious. Once married, men and women gradually prepare their funeral clothing. Burials are lavish: gold, silver, property, and valuables are exhausted in furnishing the dead. They pile stones into burial mounds and plant pines and cypresses in rows. Their horses are all small and suited to climbing mountains. The people are vigorous and practiced in warfare. Okjeo and Eastern Ye are subject to them. There are also the Xiaoshui Maek. Goguryeo established its country beside a great river. North of Xi'anping County is a small river flowing south into the sea. A separate Goguryeo group established a country beside this small river and was accordingly called the Xiaoshui Maek, or Maek of the Small River. It produces fine bows, the so-called Maek bows.

Wang Mang initially mobilized Goguryeo troops to attack the Hu. They did not wish to go and were sent under compulsion; all deserted beyond the frontier and became raiders. Tian Tan, Chief Administrator of Liaoxi, pursued them and was killed. Provincial, commandery, and county officials blamed Tao, Marquis of Goguryeo. Yan You memorialized: 'The Maek people have broken the law, but their crime did not originate with Tao. He should for the moment be reassured. If this great offense is indiscriminately laid upon him, I fear he will rebel.' Wang Mang would not listen and ordered Yan You to attack. Yan You lured the Marquis of Goguryeo (Tao) to a meeting, beheaded him when he arrived, and sent his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was delighted and proclaimed throughout the realm that Gao-Gouli, 'High Gouli,' was renamed Xia-Gouli, 'Low Gouli.' At that time it was a marquisate. In the eighth year of Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu), the king of Goguryeo sent envoys with court tribute, and only then was recognized with the title of king. <Tao follows the personal name 騊 printed in this text.>

Between the reigns of Emperor Shang (Liu Long) and Emperor An (Liu Hu), King Gong of Goguryeo repeatedly raided Liaodong and came under Xuantu instead. Cai Feng, Grand Administrator of Liaodong, and Yao Guang, Grand Administrator of Xuantu, considered Gong a menace to both commanderies and raised troops against him. Gong pretended to surrender and requested peace, so the two commanderies halted. He secretly dispatched troops against Xuantu, burned Houcheng, entered Liaosui, and killed officials and civilians. Later he again invaded Liaodong. Cai Feng rashly pursued him with officials and soldiers, and his army was defeated and destroyed.

Gong died, and his son Bogu succeeded. Between the reigns of Emperor Shun (Liu Bao) and Emperor Huan (Liu Zhi), he again invaded Liaodong, raiding Xin'an and Juxiang and attacking Xi'anping. On the road he killed the Magistrate of Daifang and captured the wife and children of the Grand Administrator of Lelang. In Jianning 2 under Emperor Ling (Liu Hong), Geng Lin, Grand Administrator of Xuantu, attacked him, taking several hundred heads and captives. Bogu surrendered and came under Liaodong. During Xiping, he requested subordination to Xuantu. <The first character of the era name, 熹, is supplied in brackets in the source.> When Gongsun Du asserted his strength east of the sea, Bogu sent the great ka Youju, the Zhubu Ranren, and others to help him attack the bandits of Fushan, defeating them. <Personal names here are transcribed from the Chinese text; their ancient local pronunciations are not established.>

Bogu died, leaving two sons: the elder Baqi and the younger Yiyimo. Baqi was unworthy, so the people jointly established Yiyimo as king. Since Bogu's time, Goguryeo had repeatedly raided Liaodong and had also received more than five hundred households of fugitive Hu. During Jian'an, Gongsun Kang marched against it, defeated its forces, and burned its settlements. Resenting that he had not been established despite being the elder brother, Baqi and the ka of the Juannu each brought their lower households, numbering more than thirty thousand people, to surrender to Gongsun Kang, then returned to settle beside the Feiliu River. The surrendered Hu also deserted Yiyimo. Yiyimo established a new seat of government at its present location. Baqi eventually went to Liaodong, leaving a son in Goguryeo: he is the present Guchujia, Bo Weiju. Later Goguryeo again attacked Xuantu, whose forces joined those of Liaodong and decisively defeated it.

Yiyimo had no son. Through an illicit relationship with a woman of the Guannu tribe he fathered a son named Weigong. When Yiyimo died, this son was established as king: he is Gong, the present king of Goguryeo. His great-grandfather was named Gong. He could open his eyes and look about at birth, which the people regarded as ominous. When grown, he indeed became cruel and repeatedly raided, bringing devastation on the country. The present king could likewise open his eyes and look at people immediately after birth. In the Goguryeo language, wi means 'resemble.' Because he resembled his ancestor, he was named Weigong. He was strong and brave, proficient on horseback, and skilled in hunting and archery. In Jingchu 2, when the Grand Commandant Sima Xuanwang (Sima Yi) <a posthumous royal designation> led troops against Gongsun Yuan, Gong sent Zhubu and great ka with several thousand men to assist. In Zhengshi 3, Gong raided Xi'anping. In Zhengshi 5, Guanqiu Jian, Inspector of You Province, defeated him. The account appears in Guanqiu Jian's biography.

Eastern Okjeo lies east of Goguryeo's great Mount Gaema, beside the great sea. Its territory is narrow in the northeast and elongated toward the southwest, extending roughly a thousand li. It borders the Yilou and Buyeo to the north and the Yemaek to the south. It has five thousand households and no supreme king. Its settlements have hereditary local chiefs. Its language is largely the same as Goguryeo's, with occasional minor differences. Early in Han, the Yan fugitive Wi Man became king of Joseon, and Okjeo was then entirely subject to him. In Yuanfeng 2, Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che) attacked Joseon, killed Wi Man's grandson Ugeo, and divided its territory into four commanderies. Okjeo City became the seat of Xuantu Commandery. Later, because of attacks by the Yi and Maek, the commandery was moved northwest of Goguryeo, to what is now called the old Xuantu headquarters. Okjeo returned to Lelang's jurisdiction. Because the territory was vast and remote, Han established an Eastern Division Commandant east of the great Dandan Ridge, with his seat at Bunae City, to govern the seven counties east of the ridge separately. At that time Okjeo's settlements too were all counties. In the sixth year of Emperor Guangwu of Han (Liu Xiu), frontier commanderies were reduced, and the commandant's office was accordingly abolished. <The source prints 光, guang, parenthetically within the emperor's title.> Thereafter chiefs within the counties were made county marquises. Bunae, Huali, Okjeo, and the other counties all became marquisates. The Yi and Di attacked one another. Only the Ye marquis of Bunae still appoints a Merit Officer, Registrar, and the other administrative offices, all staffed by Ye people. Chiefs of Okjeo settlements all call themselves Sanlao <elders>, following the institutions of the former counties and marquisates. Their country was small and hemmed in by great states, so it became subject to Goguryeo. Goguryeo appointed their leading men as Shizhe to govern them and sent great ka to oversee the collection of taxes: Maek cloth, fish, salt, and seafood were carried a thousand li to it. They also sent their beautiful women as servants and concubines and were treated like slaves.

Their land is fertile, with mountains behind and the sea before it, and suits the five grains. They are skilled cultivators. The people are straightforward, strong, and brave. They have few cattle or horses and are proficient at fighting on foot with spears. Their food, drink, dwellings, clothing, and ceremonial observances resemble Goguryeo's.

When Guanqiu Jian attacked Goguryeo, its king Gong fled to Okjeo, so the army advanced against it. All the Okjeo settlements were defeated, with more than three thousand heads and captives taken. Gong fled to Northern Okjeo. Northern Okjeo is also called Chiguru and lies more than eight hundred li from Southern Okjeo. Their northern and southern customs are the same. Northern Okjeo adjoins the Yilou, who like raiding by boat. Fearing them, its people regularly take defensive refuge in mountain crags and deep caves in summer. In winter, when ice blocks the waterways, they descend to live in their villages. Wang Qi was separately dispatched to pursue Gong to the end of its eastern territory. He asked the elders whether there were people farther east across the sea. They said that some countrymen had once gone fishing by boat, encountered a storm, and been blown about for several dozen days. In the east they reached an island whose inhabitants spoke an unintelligible language. Their custom was to take young girls and drown them in the sea in the seventh month. They also spoke of another country in the sea inhabited entirely by women, with no men. They further said that a cloth garment had washed ashore: its body resembled clothing of the central lands, but its two sleeves were three zhang long. A wrecked boat had also drifted onto the shore, carrying a man with another face on the back of his neck. They captured him alive, but could not understand his speech; he refused food and died. All these places were said to lie in the great sea east of Okjeo. <The source places 國, guo, in parentheses within 中國, 'central lands.' These are reports attributed to the elders.>

The Yilou live more than a thousand li northeast of Buyeo, beside the great sea, bordering Northern Okjeo to the south. The extent of their northern territory is unknown. Their land has many steep mountains. In appearance they resemble the people of Buyeo, but their language differs from both Buyeo's and Goguryeo's. They have the five grains, cattle, horses, and hemp cloth. Many are brave and strong. There is no supreme ruler; each settlement has a chieftain. They live among wooded mountains, usually in underground dwellings. Great households descend nine ladders; more are considered better. The climate is colder even than Buyeo's. Their custom favors raising pigs: they eat the meat and wear the skins. In winter they coat their bodies with pig fat several fen thick against wind and cold. In summer they go bare, concealing front and rear with a foot of cloth. The account describes them as unclean: the privy is placed in the center, with dwellings around it. Their bows are four chi long and as powerful as crossbows. Their arrows are made of hu wood, one chi eight cun long, with blue-stone heads. This is the country of the ancient Sushen. They are skilled archers whose shots penetrate those they strike. <The source adds the parenthetical character 因 after 入, 'enter'; its textual function is uncertain.> Their arrows are poisoned, and those hit die. They produce red jade and fine diao pelts, what are now called Yilou diao. Since Han they had been subject to Buyeo. Because Buyeo demanded heavy tribute, they rebelled during Huangchu. Buyeo repeatedly attacked them, but although their population was small, their terrain was rugged and their neighbors feared their bows and arrows, so they could never finally be subdued. They are adept at raiding by boat and trouble neighboring countries. Almost all the Eastern Yi use ritual stands and vessels for food and drink; only the Yilou do not. The account judges their laws and customs the least orderly.

Ye borders Jinhan to the south and Goguryeo and Okjeo to the north; to the east it reaches the great sea. The lands east of present Joseon are all its territory. It has twenty thousand households. Formerly, after Jizi went to Joseon, he taught its people eight provisions of instruction. Doors needed no fastening, and the people did not steal. More than forty generations later, a marquis of Joseon usurped the royal title. <The source places 淮, Huai, in parentheses here, apparently as a personal name; its precise reading is uncertain.> When Chen Sheng and others rose and the realm rebelled against Qin, tens of thousands of people from Yan, Qi, and Zhao fled to Joseon. Wi Man of Yan, wearing his hair in a topknot and adopting local dress, came and in turn became its king. Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che) conquered Joseon and divided its territory into four commanderies. Thereafter Hu and Han gradually became distinct. There was no supreme ruler. Since Han, its officials had included marquises, settlement lords, and Sanlao, who governed the lower households. Its elders traditionally said they shared origins with Goguryeo. The people are sincere and honest, have few desires and a sense of shame, and do not beg. <The source inserts the parenthetical words 句麗, 'Goguryeo,' within this clause; their connection is unclear.> Their language, laws, and customs broadly resemble Goguryeo's, but their clothing differs. Both men and women wear curved collars; men hammer silver into floral ornaments several cun wide. West of the great Dandan Ridge belongs to Lelang. East of the ridge are seven counties governed by a commandant, all inhabited by Ye people. After the commandant was abolished, their chiefs were enfeoffed as marquises. The present Ye of Bunae are all their descendants. Late in Han they came under Goguryeo instead. Their customs hold mountains and rivers sacred. Each mountain and river has its assigned bounds, which others may not enter without permission. People of the same surname do not marry. They have many taboos. When illness or death occurs, they abandon and destroy their former house and build another. They have hemp cloth, cultivate silkworms and mulberries, and make silk floss. Understanding the stars, they predict whether the year will be plentiful or poor. They do not treasure the item written 誅 and jade. <誅 normally means 'punish'; it may be a textual error for 珠, 'pearls,' but that reading is not silently substituted here.> They regularly sacrifice to Heaven at the tenth-month festival, drinking, singing, and dancing day and night, calling it Mucheon, 'Dancing to Heaven.' They also worship the tiger as a deity. When settlements encroach on one another, they impose compensation in captives, cattle, and horses, calling it 'exacting recompense for calamity.' Murder is repaid with death. Raiding and theft are rare. They make spears three zhang long, sometimes held by several men together, and are capable infantry fighters. The sandalwood bows of Lelang come from their territory. Their sea produces patterned fish skins; the land abounds in patterned leopards and also produces guoxia horses, which they presented during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han (Liu Zhi).

In Zhengshi 6, Liu Mao, Grand Administrator of Lelang, and Gong Zun, Grand Administrator of Daifang, raised troops against the Ye east of the ridge because they were subject to Goguryeo. The Marquis of Bunae and others surrendered with their entire settlements. In Zhengshi 8, he came to court with tribute, and an edict newly appointed him King of the Ye of Bunae. He lived among the common people and visited the commandery to pay his respects in each season. Whenever the two commanderies made military expeditions or levied supplies, he furnished provisions and labor and was treated as one of their subjects.

Han lies south of Daifang, bounded by the sea on the east and west and adjoining Wa to the south. Its territory is roughly four thousand li square. It has three divisions: Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. Jinhan is the ancient state of Jin. Mahan lies in the west. Its people are settled cultivators, know sericulture, and make silk floss and cloth. Each group has a chief; the greater call themselves Sinji and the next rank Eupcha. They are scattered among mountains and the sea, without walled cities. Their states are Yuanxiang, Moushui, Sangwai, Xiaoshisuo, Dashisuo, Youxiumouzhuo, Chenfengu, Baekje, Sulubusi, Rihua, Gudanzhe, Guli, Nulan, Yuezhi, Zilimoulu, Suoweigan, Guyuan, Molu, Beili, Zhanlibei, Chenxin, Zhiqin, Goulu, Beimi, Jianxibeili, Gupu, Zhiliju, Ranlu, Erlin, Silu, Neibeili, Ganxi, Wanlu, Pibeili, Jiusiwudan, Yili, Bumi, Zhiban, Gousu, Jielu, Moulubeili, Chensutu, Molu, Gula, Linsuban, Chenyunxin, Rulaibeili, Chushantubeili, Yinan, Gouxi, Buyun, Busifenxie, Yuanchi, Ganma, and Chuli: more than fifty states in all. <Except for the familiar name Baekje, these transcriptions follow the Chinese characters in this text; ancient local pronunciations are uncertain. Molu occurs twice in the source list.> Great states have more than ten thousand households, small ones several thousand, totaling more than a hundred thousand households. The King of Jin resides in Yuezhi. Some Sinji receive additional honorific titles: Chenyun Qianzhibao, Anxie Cuzhifen, Chenli Erbuli, and Gouye Qinzhilian. <The division and pronunciation of this compressed title list are uncertain.> Their offices and honors include Wei's Leader Who Follows Goodness, Settlement Lord, Marquis Who Returns to Righteousness, General of the Household, Commandant, and Chief of a Hundred.

After Marquis Jun usurped the royal title, the Yan fugitive Wi Man attacked and dispossessed him.

Jun took his attendants and palace women and fled by sea to the land of Han, where he styled himself King of Han.

His line later died out, but some Han people still maintain sacrifices to him. In Han times they belonged to Lelang Commandery and paid their respects there in each season.

Toward the latter part of the reigns of Emperor Huan (Liu Zhi) and Emperor Ling (Liu Hong), the Han and Ye grew powerful. The commanderies and counties could not control them, and many people fled into Han territory. During Jian'an, Gongsun Kang separated the unsettled territory south of Tunyou County to establish Daifang Commandery. He sent Gongsun Mo, Zhang Chang, and others to gather the surviving population and raised troops against the Han and Ye. Former residents gradually emerged, and thereafter Wa and Han came under Daifang. During Jingchu, Emperor Ming (Cao Rui) secretly sent Liu Xin, Grand Administrator of Daifang, and Xianyu Si, Grand Administrator of Lelang, across the sea to secure the two commanderies. The Sinji of the Han states received the additional seals and ribbons of Settlement Lords; the next rank received those of Settlement Chiefs. Their customs favor robes and headdresses. When lower households visited the commandery to pay respects, they all borrowed robes and headdresses. More than a thousand people possessed their own seals, ribbons, robes, and headdresses. Wu Lin, an administrative officer of the division, reasoned that Lelang had originally governed the Han states and divided off eight Jinhan states to give to Lelang. Differences arose as officials and interpreters transmitted the matter; the Sinji stirred the Han to anger, and they attacked Daifang's Qili camp. Gong Zun, its Grand Administrator, and Liu Mao, Grand Administrator of Lelang, raised troops against them. Gong Zun died in battle, and the two commanderies then destroyed the Han forces.

The account describes their customs as lacking order. Although states and settlements have chiefs, people live intermixed, making effective control difficult. They have no ceremony of kneeling in homage. They live in thatched huts and earthen dwellings shaped like burial mounds, with entrances above. Whole households share the interior, without separation by age or sex. Their burials have outer cases but no inner coffins. They do not know how to ride cattle or horses, and expend their cattle and horses on funerals. They treasure strings of beads, sewing them on clothes or hanging them around necks and from ears. They do not value gold, silver, brocade, or embroidery. The people are strong and brave, wearing their hair in large exposed knots, described as resembling 'jiong troops' <炅兵 in the source; the expression is unclear>. They wear cloth robes and leather footwear. When work is undertaken in the country, or the authorities order walls built, the brave, strong young men pierce the skin of their backs, pass a great rope through it, and insert a piece of wood about a zhang long. All day they shout and exert themselves, not regarding it as painful. This both encourages work and displays their strength. After sowing is completed in the fifth month, they sacrifice to spirits, gathering to sing, dance, and drink day and night without rest. In their dance several dozen rise together and follow one another, stamping, bending, and rising, with hands and feet moving together in a rhythm resembling the Bell Dance. After the harvest in the tenth month, they do the same. They believe in spirits. Each state appoints one man to oversee sacrifices to the heavenly deity, calling him the Heavenly Lord. Each state also has a separate settlement called a sodo. There a tall wooden pole is erected with bells and drums suspended from it for worship of spirits. Fugitives who reach it are not returned, and the account associates it with lawbreaking. The principle of establishing sodo resembles that of Buddhist sanctuaries, though their practices differ in good and evil. The northern states near the commanderies understand ceremonial customs to some extent; the remote communities are described as resembling gatherings of convicts and slaves. There are no other rare treasures. Animals and plants are broadly like those of the central lands. Great chestnuts grow there, as large as pears. There are also slender-tailed chickens whose tails exceed five chi. Some men tattoo their bodies. The Zhouhu also live on a great island in the sea west of Mahan. They are rather small in build and speak a language different from Han. They shave their heads like the Xianbei, wear only hides, and favor raising cattle and pigs. Their clothing covers the upper body but not the lower, leaving them nearly naked. They travel by boat and trade in Han territory.

Jinhan lies east of Mahan. Its elders transmit the account that their ancestors were fugitives who escaped Qin labor service and came to Han, where Mahan allotted them its eastern territory. They have fortified stockades. Their language differs from Mahan's: they call a country bang, a bow hu, a robber kou, and circulating wine xingshang. They address one another as tu. These usages resemble those of Qin people and are not merely the vocabulary of Yan and Qi. They call the people of Lelang acan. Eastern people use a for 'we,' and they mean that Lelang's people are remnants of their own population. Some now call them Qinhan. Originally there were six states, gradually divided into twelve.

Byeonjin likewise has twelve states, as well as various small separate settlements, each with a chief. The greatest are called Sinji; below them are Xiance, then Fanhui, then Shaxi, then Eupcha. <Except for Sinji and Eupcha, these title transcriptions follow the Chinese text; their ancient local readings are uncertain.> Its states include Yidi, Busi, Byeonjin Milimidong, Byeonjin Jietu, Qinqi, Nanmilimidong, Byeonjin Guzimidong, Byeonjin Guchunshi, Ranxi, Byeonjin Banlu, Bianlenu, and Junmi

; Byeonjin Miwuyema, Ruzhan, Byeonjin Ganlu, Hulu, Zhouxian (Mayan in the source's parentheses), Byeonjin Gouye, Byeonjin Zoucaoma, and Byeonjin Anxie

; Byeonjin Dulu, Silu, and Youyou. Byeonhan and Jinhan together comprise twenty-four states. Great states have four or five thousand households, small ones six or seven hundred, totaling forty or fifty thousand households. Twelve of the states belong to the King of Jin. The King of Jin is always chosen from Mahan, succeeding generation after generation. He cannot establish himself as king independently. <State names here generally transcribe the characters in this text; their ancient local pronunciations are uncertain.>

The soil is fertile and suits the five grains and rice. They understand sericulture, make fine silk and cloth, and use cattle and horses for riding and drawing vehicles. Their marriage rites and customs distinguish men from women. They send off the dead with feathers of great birds, intending to enable them to fly aloft.

The country produces iron, which the Han, Ye, and Wa all obtain from it. Iron is used in every market transaction, as money is used in the central lands; it is also supplied to the two commanderies. Their customs favor singing, dancing, and drinking. They have a se zither shaped like a zhu; plucking it likewise produces melodies. When a child is born, a stone is pressed against its head to make it flat. All Jinhan people now have flattened heads. Men and women living near Wa also tattoo their bodies. They are skilled at fighting on foot, and their weapons resemble Mahan's. Their custom is for travelers meeting one another to stop and yield the road.

Byeonjin and Jinhan live intermixed, and Byeonjin also has walled cities. Their clothing and dwellings are the same as Jinhan's. Their language, laws, and customs are similar, but their sacrifices to spirits differ. Their stoves are all placed west of the doorway. Dulu State borders Wa. The twelve states also have kings. Their people are all large in build, wear clean clothes, and have long hair. They also make fine, broad cloth. Their laws and customs are particularly severe.

The people of Wa live in the great sea southeast of Daifang, establishing states and settlements on mountainous islands. Formerly there were more than a hundred states, some of which attended the Han court. Envoys and interpreters now communicate with thirty. Traveling by water from the commandery to Wa, one follows the coast through the Han states, sometimes south and sometimes east, reaching Guya Han State on its northern shore after more than seven thousand li. One first crosses a stretch of sea, more than a thousand li, to Tsushima. Its chief officer is called Hiko, his deputy Hinamori. The isolated island is roughly four hundred li across, with rugged mountains and deep forests; its paths resemble tracks of birds and deer. It has more than a thousand households but no good fields. People support themselves on seafood and sail north and south to trade for grain. Another crossing southward of more than a thousand li, across what is called the Vast Sea, brings one to Yida State, alternatively written Yizhi <一大, with 支 given as an alternative to 大 in the source>. Its officers too are called Hiko and Hinamori. It is roughly three hundred li across, with much bamboo, woodland, and about three thousand households. It has some farmland, but cultivation still fails to provide enough food, so its people likewise trade north and south for grain. Another sea crossing of more than a thousand li reaches Matsuro, with more than four thousand households living beside mountains and the sea. Vegetation is so dense that travelers cannot see those ahead. They excel at catching fish and abalone, diving for them whether the water is deep or shallow. A five-hundred-li overland journey southeast reaches Ito. Its officer is called Niki, with deputies Xiemogu and Bingqugu <transcriptions of 泄謨觚 and 柄渠觚; their ancient readings are uncertain>. It has more than a thousand households and hereditary kings, all subject to the queen's state. Commandery envoys regularly stop there. A hundred li southeast is Na, with more than twenty thousand households, whose officer is Shimako and deputy Hinamori. A hundred li east is Fumi, with more than a thousand households, whose officer is Tamo and deputy Hinamori. Southward, a voyage of twenty days reaches Toma, with more than fifty thousand households, whose officers are Mimi and Miminari. Southward, a voyage of ten days and an overland journey of one month reaches Yamayi, where the queen has her capital. <The source prints 邪馬壹, with 臺 as an alternative to 壹, hence the alternative Yamatai.> Its officers are Ikima, then Mimasho, then Mimawakki, then Nakato. It has more than seventy thousand households. For states north of the queen's country, household numbers and distances can be roughly recorded. The other neighboring states are too remote for detailed knowledge. Next are Sima, Yibaizhi, Yixie, Duzhi, Minu, Haogudu, Buhu, Jienu, Duisu, Sunu, Huyi, Huanusunu, Gui, Weiwu, Guinu, Yema, Gongchen, Bali, Zhiwei, Wunu, and Nu; here the queen's territory ends. <These lesser state names transcribe the Chinese characters; their ancient local readings are uncertain.> South of it is Kuna, ruled by a man, with an officer called Kukochihiko. It is not subject to the queen. From the commandery to the queen's country is more than twelve thousand li. Men, young and old alike, tattoo their faces and bodies. <Familiar names use conventional readings where available; other names are transcribed from the Chinese record, whose representation of ancient local sounds remains uncertain.>

Since ancient times, their envoys to the central lands have all styled themselves grandees. A son of Shaokang, ruler of Xia, was enfeoffed at Kuaiji, where he cut his hair and tattooed his body to avert harm from water dragons. The seafaring people of Wa now enjoy diving for fish and shellfish; their tattoos likewise ward off great fish and water birds, though they gradually became adornments. Tattoos differ from state to state, on the left or right, large or small, with distinctions by rank. Judging by the routes and distances, Wa should lie east of Kuaiji and Dongzhi. Their sexual customs are restrained. Men all wear exposed hair knots, binding their heads with mumian <木緜, a material whose precise identification is uncertain here>. Their garments consist of lengths of cloth tied together, practically without seams. Women let their hair fall and bend it into knots. Their clothing resembles a single coverlet, with a hole through its center through which the head passes. They grow grain, rice, ramie, and hemp, raise silkworms on mulberries, and spin and weave, producing fine ramie cloth, silk, and silk floss. Their land has no cattle, horses, tigers, leopards, sheep, or magpies. Their weapons are spears, shields, and wooden bows. The bows are short below and long above; bamboo arrows have iron or bone heads. Their possessions, present or absent, resemble those of Dan'er and Zhuya. Wa is warm; people eat fresh vegetables in winter and summer and all go barefoot. They have houses, with parents and siblings sleeping in separate places. They paint their bodies with cinnabar as people in the central lands use cosmetic powder. They use ritual baskets and vessels for food and drink and eat with their hands. For burial they have inner coffins but no outer cases, heaping earth into mounds. At death they keep the body for more than ten days. During that time they do not eat meat; the chief mourners weep, while others sing, dance, and drink. After burial the whole household goes into the water to bathe, like a ritual cleansing. When crossing the sea to visit the central lands, they always designate one man who does not comb his hair or remove nits and lice. His clothes are filthy, he eats no meat, and he avoids women. Resembling a mourner, he is called the 'mourning keeper.' If the travelers fare well, they reward him jointly with captives and property. If illness or violent misfortune occurs, they want to kill him, saying he has not observed his mourning duties carefully. They produce pearls and blue-green jade, and their mountains contain cinnabar. Their trees include nan, zhu, yuzhang, rouli, toujiang, wuhao, and fengxiang; their bamboos include xiaogan and taozhi. <These plant names transcribe the source; exact botanical identifications are not supplied here.> They have ginger, citrus, pepper, and ranghe but do not know how to use them for flavoring. There are macaques and black pheasants. Whenever they undertake something, travel, or propose an action, they burn bones to divine good or bad fortune. First they announce the matter to be divined, in words like those used in directing tortoise-shell divination, and then interpret the cracks made by the fire.

At gatherings, in sitting and rising, they make no distinction between fathers and sons or men and women. The people are fond of wine. On seeing a respected great man they merely clap their hands instead of kneeling in homage. They are long-lived: some reach a hundred, others eighty or ninety. Great men have four or five wives, and some lower households have two or three. Women are not sexually unrestrained or jealous. People do not steal, and disputes are rare. For lesser offenses a man's wife and children are confiscated; for serious ones his whole household is destroyed. Within clans there are distinct ranks of seniority and status, sufficient to maintain mutual subordination. Taxes and levies are collected. There are storehouse offices, and every state has markets for exchanging what people have and lack, supervised by a Great Wa officer. North of the queen's country a Great Supervisor is specially appointed to inspect the states, all of which fear him. He normally resides at Ito and resembles an inspector within their country. When the ruler sends envoys to the capital, Daifang, or the Han states, and when commandery envoys go to Wa, inspections and searches are conducted at the ports. Documents and bestowed gifts are transmitted to the queen without error. When lower households meet great men on the road, they withdraw into the grass. In conveying messages or explaining matters, they squat or kneel, placing both hands on the ground to show respect. They answer 'yi,' comparable to 'yes' or 'agreed.' The country too originally had male kings. After seventy or eighty years, Wa fell into disorder, with years of mutual warfare. They then jointly established a woman as ruler, named Himiko, who served the way of spirits and could enthrall the people. Already mature, she had no husband; a younger brother helped govern. Since becoming ruler, few had seen her. A thousand female servants attended her, while just one man supplied food and drink and carried messages in and out. Her residence had palaces, towers, and lookout structures, with strongly erected walls and stockades, constantly guarded by armed men. More than a thousand li eastward across the sea from her country is another country, also inhabited by Wa people. To its south lies a country of short people, three or four chi tall, more than four thousand li from the queen. Farther southeast are the countries of Naked People and Black Teeth, reachable by a year's voyage. From inquiries about Wa, its lands lie far out on islands in the sea, sometimes separated and sometimes connected, with a circuit of roughly five thousand li.

In the sixth month of Jingchu 2, the queen of Wa sent the grandee Nashime and others to the commandery, asking to visit the Son of Heaven with court offerings. Grand Administrator Liu Xia sent officials to escort them to the capital. In the twelfth month that year, an edict replied to the queen: 'Imperial edict to Himiko, Queen of Wa Who Cherishes Wei: Liu Xia, Grand Administrator of Daifang, has sent envoys escorting your grandee Nashime and deputy envoy Dushi Niuli, bringing your offerings of four male captives, six female captives, and two bolts and two zhang of patterned cloth. Though your home is exceedingly distant, you have sent envoys with tribute. This is your loyal and filial devotion, and I look upon you with great favor. I now make you Queen of Wa Who Cherishes Wei and confer a gold seal and purple ribbon, packed and sealed for delivery to the Grand Administrator of Daifang to bestow upon you. Pacify and care for your people, striving to be filial and obedient. 'Your envoys Nashime and Niuli have traveled far and labored on the roads. I now appoint Nashime General of the Household Who Follows Goodness and Niuli Colonel Who Follows Goodness, granting silver seals and blue-green ribbons. They shall receive an audience, be rewarded for their efforts, and return. In exchange for your tribute I now grant five bolts of interlaced-dragon brocade on a crimson ground, ten pieces of crimson-ground patterned woolen cloth, fifty bolts of madder-red silk, and fifty bolts of dark-blue silk. In addition I specially grant you three bolts of hooked-pattern brocade on a dark ground, five pieces of fine patterned woolen cloth, fifty bolts of white silk, eight liang of gold, two swords five chi long, a hundred bronze mirrors, and fifty jin each of pearls and red lead. All are packed and sealed for Nashime and Niuli to bring back; record and receive them upon arrival. You may show them all to your people so they know that the state favors you and therefore solemnly grants you these fine things.' In Zhengshi 1, Grand Administrator Gong Zun sent Ti Jun, Colonel Who Establishes the Center, and others to Wa with the edict, seal, and ribbon to invest its ruler. They also brought the gold, silks, brocades, woolen cloth, swords, mirrors, and colored goods bestowed by the edict. The ruler of Wa consequently sent a memorial thanking the emperor for his gracious edict. In Zhengshi 4, the ruler again sent eight envoys, including the grandees Yishengqi and Yexieju, presenting captives, Wa brocade, crimson and blue-green silk, padded clothing, silk and cloth, dan wood, the item written 𤝔 <its identification is uncertain>, and short bows and arrows. Yexiegou and the others were all granted seals and ribbons as Generals of the Household Who Follow Goodness. <Yexieju and Yexiegou follow the different written forms 掖邪拘 and 掖邪狗 in this passage; exact ancient pronunciations are uncertain.> In Zhengshi 6, an edict granted Nashime of Wa a yellow standard, delivered to the commandery for investiture. In Zhengshi 8, Grand Administrator Wang Qi took office. Himiko, queen of Wa, had long been at odds with Himikuko, the male ruler of Kuna. She sent the Wa men Zaisi, Wuyue, and others to the commandery to describe their mutual attacks. Zhang Zheng, an administrative officer of the Frontier Section, and others were sent with an edict and the yellow standard to invest Nashime and issue a proclamation of instruction. Himiko died. A great burial mound more than a hundred paces in diameter was built, and more than a hundred male and female slaves were killed to accompany her. A male ruler was installed, but the country would not submit. People killed one another, with more than a thousand deaths at that time. They again established a female relative of Himiko, Iyo, aged thirteen, as ruler, and the country settled down. <The source writes 壹與, with 臺 as an alternative to 壹, giving the alternative Toyo.> Zhang Zheng and the others issued a proclamation instructing Iyo. Iyo sent twenty men, including the Wa grandee Yexiegou, General of the Household Who Follows Goodness, to escort Zhang Zheng and the others home and visit the imperial court. They presented thirty male and female captives, five thousand pierced white pearls, two great blue-green curved beads, and twenty bolts of assorted brocades with unusual patterns.

Appraisal: The Records of the Historian and the History of Han set out accounts of Joseon and the two Yue; the Eastern Han compiled records of the Western Qiang. In Wei's time the Xiongnu finally declined, while the Wuhuan and Xianbei arose, extending also to the Eastern Yi. Envoys and interpreters communicated at intervals, and records were made as events occurred. How could these matters remain constant?